Images of Power and Authority in Art Essay

Art has been used to portray figures of power and authority many times in history. Different cultures have different ways of portraying the image to have power and authority. One example of using art to portray images of power and authority is the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin. This was made to commemorate King Naram-Sin for his defeat of Lullubi. The King stands alone at the top, taller than everyone else. This shows that he is more powerful than anyone else. The King also wears a horned helmet that shows godliness. Celestial bodies shine upon him also showing him as a deity. His troops are lined up behind him in an orderly fashion, showing his control and also the discipline and organization of his forces. He and his army have complete control of the subdued enemy, showing that he and his army are superior. Art was also used to portray images of power and authority in the times of Ancient Egypt. This is shown in the Statue of Khafre. On the seat Khafre is sitting in there is an image of intertwined lotus and papyrus which symbolizes united Egypt. The falcon covering his head is Horus, the god the sky and heavens. This implies the pharaoh’s divine status. The pharaoh is also shaped with a canon of ideal proportions, which is suitable for someone as perfect as the pharaoh. Also the expression on the pharaoh’s face is calm and shows eternal strength and life. Many of the traits in both examples constitute how their culture’s image of power and authority. Bibliography 1) Gardner’s Art Through the Ages Tenth Edition, p.50,75-76. 2) www.coco.cc.az.us/apetersen/ _ART201/old_king.htm 3) www.coco.cc.az.us/apetersen/ _ART201/akkad.htm 4) â€Å"Ancient Egypt†, World Book Encyclopedia, 1990. Images of Power and Authority in Art Art has been used to portray figures of power and authority many times in history. Different cultures have different ways of portraying the image to have power and authority. One example of using art to portray images of power and authority is the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin. This was made to commemorate King Naram-Sin for his defeat of Lullubi. T he King stands alone at the top, taller than everyone else. This shows that he is more powerful than anyone else. The King also wears a horned helmet that shows godliness. Celestial bodies shine upon him also showing him as a deity. His troops are lined up behind him in an orderly fashion, showing his control and also the discipline and organization of his forces. He and his army have complete control of the subdued enemy, showing that he and his army are superior. Art was also used to portray images of power and authority in the times of Ancient Egypt. This is shown in the Statue of Khafre. On the seat Khafre is sitting in there is an image of intertwined lotus and papyrus which symbolizes united Egypt. The falcon covering his head is Horus, the god the sky and heavens. This implies the pharaoh’s divine status. The pharaoh is also shaped with a canon of ideal proportions, which is suitable for someone as perfect as the pharaoh. Also the expression on the pharaoh’s face is calm and shows eternal strength and life. Many of the traits in both examples constitute how their cultureâ₠¬â„¢s image of power and authority. Bibliography 1) Gardner’s Art Through the Ages Tenth Edition, p.50,75-76. 2) www.coco.cc.az.us/apetersen/ _ART201/old_king.htm 3) www.coco.cc.az.us/apetersen/ _ART201/akkad.htm 4) â€Å"Ancient Egypt†, World Book Encyclopedia, 1990.

Adverb Clause

What do you know about adverbial clause? Adverb clause is a dependent clauses that consists of subject and verd as a unit which takes the place of an adverb in another clauses or pharses. It answers questions such as â€Å"when? †, â€Å"where? †, â€Å"why? †, â€Å"with whwt result? †, and â€Å"under what condition? †. It oftenly modifies verb in the sentences. 2. Mention the kinds of adverb clause! There are some kinds of adverb clause, they are: kind of clausecommon conjunctionsFunctionExample ime clauseswhen, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until,till, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question â€Å"when? â€Å"); hardly, scarcely, no sooner, etc. These clauses are used to say when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event. Her goldfish died when she was young. conditional clausesif, unless, lestThese clauses are used to talk about a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences. If the y lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards. urpose clausesin order to, so that, in order thatThese clauses are used to indicate the purpose of an action.They had to take some of his land so that they could extend the churchyard. reason clausesbecause, since, as, givenThese clauses are used to indicate the reason for something. I couldn't feel anger against him because I liked him too much. result clausesso†¦ thatThese clauses are used to indicate the result of something. My suitcase had become so damaged on the journey home that the lid would not stay closed. oncessive clausesalthough, though, whileThese clauses are used to make two statements, one of which contrasts with the other or makes it seem surprising. I used to read a lot although I don't get much time for books now. place clauseswhere, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question â€Å"where? â€Å")These clauses are used to talk about the location or position of s omething. He said he was happy where he was. clauses of manneras, like, the wayThese clauses are used to talk about someone's behaviour or the way something is done.I was never allowed to do things as I wanted to do them. Table 1. adopted from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Adverbial_clause 3. Example of adverb clause a. The government of resource-poor Japan and the utility companies contend nuclear reactors must come back online after thorough safety checks to avoid possible rolling blackouts this summer and excessive reliance on imports of liquid natural gas, coal and other expensive fuels for conventional power plants. The underlined above is adverb clause of time. It modifies the verb come back. . Tokyo housewife Setsuko Naoe says she felt compelled to join the protests because officials have not learned any lessons from the Fukushima meltdowns. The underlined above is adverb clause of reason, it modifies felt compelled to join the protests. c. Asakawa says since the 1960s, Japa n has not seen such large street demonstrations, which also took place in the same location. But these rallies are different he points out – as they are not composed of radical, young people but are rather part of a diverse grassroots movement.The underlined above is adverb clause of time, it modifies has not seen’ d. Japan may be forced to halt all state spending including salaries, pensions and unemployment benefits, because of a standoff in parliament that has blocked a bill to finance the deficit. The underlined above is adverb clause of reason. It modifies the verb may be forced. e. â€Å"The giant pandas are messengers of friendship,† he said. â€Å"We hope that people-to-people sentiment and overall relations between China and Japan can be promoted because of the birth of the cub. † The underlined above is adverb clause of reason.It modifies can be promoted. f. Victoria only learned the truth when she became an adult. The underlined above is an adv erb clause of time. It modifies learned. g. â€Å"With this verdict we can start repairing the damages caused by our history, even though this history still causes us pain,† she adds. The underlined above is an adverb clause of concessive. It modifies start repairing. h. Some either prefer not to know or when they do find out they remain with the parents who raised them – even if they were directly involved in the death of their biological parents.The underlined above takes place as an adverb clause of conditional. It modifies prefer not to know. i. When her adoptive father told her that her parents were left-wing activists that he himself had helped to arrest, she replied: â€Å"I understand that you had to do it. † The underlined above is adverb clause of time. It modifies the verb replied. j. â€Å"The worst years came when I started to come to terms with my situation and I had this huge internal emotional debate,† she says. The underlined above is adv erb clause of time. It modifies the verb came. 4.Comparison and the differences among Noun, Adjective and Adverb clause. Three of the clauses above same in the content, their clauses consist of subject and verb. While the differences among them the functions and what they modify. Noun clause takes place as noun in the sentences, it may be appear as subject or object. Noun clause often modifies the noun in the sentence. Adjective clause takes place as an adjective in the sentence. It also modifies the noun in the sentence. And adverb clause takes place as an adverb in the sentences, it modifies the verb in the sentence.

An analsysis of the theme of love and deceit in Twelfth Night

An analsysis of the theme of love and deceit in Twelfth Night According to Patrick Swinden in An Introduction to Shakespeares Comedies, a comedy does not demand the the degree of concentration and belief required by tragedy. As a result, an audience of a play is amusedly aware that its all a play, a game that they are sharing with the actors. FN1 In Twelfth Night, it is the characters, almost without exception, who, in varying degrees, are involved in deception. Swinden says, Whether we look in the plot that Shakespeare took (indirectly) from the Italian, or the plot he made up to put beside it, we shall discover deceit piled on deceit. FN2 Cesario/Viola deceives Olivia, Orsino, Sir Andrew, and Sir Toby, while Maria, Sir Toby, Sir Andrew, and Feste deceive Malvolio. In an intricate pattern of concealment and reveal-ment the play spins dizzily toward its happy resolution with all the deceptions that had, and had been, concealed revealed. Is the end of the play really a happy ending? What dynamic in the process of deception could cause Sir Andrew to disappear or force Malvolio to declare, Ill be revenged on the whole pack of you! (5.1.380)? Are the characters bettered or changed by their experiences when they arrive at the end of Act Five than when they started at the beginning of Act One? Whether it be a practical joke or a clever disguise, the games being played in Illyria simultaneously result from and protect each characters deception not only of others but also, more importantly of themselves. The clearest examples are Duke Orsino and Olivia. The games begin with Orsinos opening lines to the play: If music be the food of love, play on; Give me excess of it, that surfeiting, The appetite may sicken and die (1.1.1-4). As Orsino continues to wax rhetorical and hysterical about being in love, it rapidly becomes apparent that he is playing a game with himself, which he will continue throughout the play. He is not in love, but rather in love with love. Olivia is unattainable and she has told him so repeatedly. Yet Orsino persists in making himself suffer, listening to sad love songs, writing to her, staying awake at night and crying into his pillow because he believes that this is the way someone in love acts. It is part of the game that while it may appear that Orsino is rhapsodising about Olivia, he is actually concentrating on himself. The words I, me, and mine occur ten times in the opening passage, culminating with: How will she love When live, brain, and heart, Those sovereign thrones, are all supplied and filled Her sweet perfections with one selfsame king! (35-39). Shakespeares use of selfsame intensifies not only Orsinos description of Olivia, but also his focus on himself. Throughout these lines there is a sense that Orsinos sexual identity, encased in a male body, has not yet been clearly defined, hence his necessity for adopting what he thinks are the affectations of a successful lover. Orsino begins Act Two, scene 4 in the same way he begins Act One: Give me some music (2.4.1). Here, however, Orsino requests a specific song, one overheard just the night before, as Feste, Olivias fool, sang it. How Orsino managed to overhear Festes performance is one of the mysteries of the play, but its effect on Orsino is unquestionable it did relieve my passion much (2.4.4). The songs lyrics are most depressing: Come away, come away, Death, And in sad cypress let me be laid. Fie away, fie away, breath, I am slain by a fair cruel maid; My shroud of white, all stuck with yew, O prepare it. My part of death no one so true Did share it. Not a flower, not a flower sweet On my black coffin let there be strown; Not a friend, not a friend greet My poor corpse, where my bones shall be thrown. A thousand thousand sighs to save Lay me, O where Sad lover never find my grave To weep there. (2.4.49-64) Although Orsino says that he heard only a piece of song (2.4.2), he also notes that it is an old and antique song (2.4.3), indicating that he knows it in its entirety. Its tune and sentiment are so powerful that it remains with him the next morning. It is possible that the song reminds Orsino that he is no longer young enough to pursue an amorous campaign, and that there will be neither lover nor child to mourn him as Olivia mourns her brother. In modern pop-psychology terminology, Orsino appears to be having a mid-life crisis. Orsinos game reaches a breaking point when Cesario interrupts his rhetoric with, Ay, but I know- (2.4.99). Orsino is shocked that this young man may have love experiences to which he has not been privy. He questions what Cesario knows about love and women, and is eager to hear the boys blank (2.4.106) story. Yet, Orsino remains oblivious to Cesarios confession: I am all the daughters of my fathers house, And all the brothers, too (2.4.116-117). Orsino seems to be uncomfortable with this very personal, very intense revelation from another man since his Ay, thats the theme (2.4.119) appears to restore his concentration to the safety and comfort of the pursuit of Olivia. Orsino decides to discard his affectations and goes to speak directly with Olivia. Whatever has transpired between him and Cesario in their three months (5.1.88) silence of Acts Three and Four has given him the strength to declare that he will be so much a sinner to be a double-dealer (5.1.27). Many productions have offered Orsino actually falling in love with Cesario, such as the 1994 RSC version which had the events of 2.4 take place in Orsinos bed. Orsino and Cesario share a passionate kiss that surprises them both, but the kiss also seems to flow from the action and its location. Trevor Nunns 1996 film moves the moment of passion to the scene during which Feste sings a love madrigal in a stable. Feste who coughs at the critical moment of their lips almost touching breaks the momentum. The interpretation is a valid one based on Orsinos customarily rhetorical proclamations of love for Cesario: Why should I not Kill what I love. (5.1.106, 108) This your minion whom, by heaven I swear I tender dearly (5.1.114-115) The lamb that I do love (5.1.119). Has Orsino fallen out of love with love and in love with Cesario? His proclamations arise from his anger at Olivias very public rejection of them as fat and fulsome to mine ear/As howling music (5.1.98-99), the same music that he has found so soothing. This anger is not generated by some newfound awareness. Swinden comments: He is talking about Cesario, not Olivia The presence on stage of both partners during the tirade brings out very delicately the ambiguity of Orsinos shift in feeling. He fails to distinguish the object of his anger from the object of his love. FN3 Even when Cesario is revealed to be Viola, his acceptance of a share in this most happy wrack (5.1.250) seems to be dependent on his seeing her in womans weeds (5.1.257). Yet it is to Viola still dressed as Cesario to whom Orsino offers his hand, not once but twice. That Orsino will not accept Viola unless she looks like a proper woman and yet offers his hand to the male vision suggests that Orsino has not surrendered completely his comfortable sexual cocoon into which he has only admitted Cesario and then only with restraint. This reticence is confirmed at the plays end when Orsino admits: Cesario come For so you shall be while you are a man, But when in other habits you are seen Orsinos mistress, and his fancys queen (5.1.362-365). In The two Antonios and Same-Sex Love in Twelfth Night and The Merchant of Venice, critic Joseph Pequigney explains that [Orsinos] attraction to Olivia, where he is heterosexually straight, like the other would-be wooers Sir Andrew Aguecheek and Malvolio, is a disaster. The love Cesario could not have changed instantaneously with the revelation of his femaleness; if it is erotic, then it would have been erotic before; what does change is that marriage suddenly becomes possible, hence the immediate proposal. FN4 This proposal is followed by a mournful song from Feste on the stages of a love life, which brings the play back to the beginning. Clearly, Orsino has not changed from the man he was: he will still have his fancy. He is as he was at the beginning of the play: he cannot totally abandon his own sexual game. In all likelihood, Viola will now become an Olivia substitute, his fancys queen. As Orsino hides behind the game of love, Olivia hides behind the game of grief cut off from love, adopting an Orsino version of mourning behaviour. Her entire household is in mourning and she daily goes to her brothers grave. As long as she grieves for her dead bother, her sexual desires can be put on hold. Grieving gives her the perfect excuse for rejecting Orsinos suit and relieves her of making a sexual investment in any man until she chooses the sight/And company of men (1.2.40-41). Unlike Orsino, Olivia has put a seven-year limit on her mourning for her father and brother of which twelvemonth has already elapsed when Viola lands in Illyria. In addition, Olivia differs from Orsino significantly since she can Sway her house, command her followers, Take and give back affairs and them dispatch With such a smooth, discreet and stable bearing (4.3.17-19). She is generous and tolerant, boarding Sir Toby and his guest, Sir Andrew, and positive in her view of the repressed Malvolio. With Festes logical and systematic stripping away of her facade, with Olivias consent, Olivia is free in a way that eludes Orsino. She demonstrates keen judgment about the affectations of love: Tis not that time of the moon with me to make one in so skipping a dialogue (1.5.164-165). She has an agile mind and is able to counter Cesarios metaphors as quickly as he issues them. She is inquisitive and only asks Cesario the necessary questions. She seems to be a realist, offering divers schedules of my beauty (1.5.200-201) in response to Cesarios lyricism. These qualities refuse to submerged even as she finds herself falling in love with Cesario: Not too fast! Soft, soft! Even so quickly may one catch the plague. Methinks I feel this youths perfections With an invisible and subtle stealth To creep in at mine eyes. Well, let it be. (1.5.248, 250-253) Olivia thus chooses to abandon the safety of her game and pursue Cesario with complete abandon and confidence in her womanhood. In her pursuit, free from her facade, Olivia is naively honest with herself and Cesario. She confesses in 3.1 that she sent a ring in chase of him (3.1.98). She asks him honestly, I prithee tell me what thou thinkst of me (3.1.123). Cesario attempts to repay this honesty, That you do think you are not what you are (3.1.124). Because of her naà ¯vetà ©, Olivia takes the phrase literally and assures Cesario that she is not mad. However, the line also points out that Olivia, the noblewoman, has fallen in love with a manservant, though a gentleman, and that that gentleman is actually a gentlewoman. Even so, Olivia is rational enough to realise that wit nor reason can my passion hide (3.1.137). Unlike Orsino, Olivia embraces the opportunity for sexual fulfilment with such enthusiasm that she will attempt to overcome every obstacle with actions, not moaning and words. She is quite lucid on love, Love sought is good, but givn unsought is better (3.1.141). In this sense, she is the sexual positive to Orsinos negative. Olivias views will be challenged, however, when confronted by Sebastian. Since fraternal identical twins are a biological impossibility, it would seem that Olivia would note some difference between Cesario and Sebastian. But in the throes of sacrificing love, she would rather soothe her beloveds ire with tales of how many fruitless pranks have been instigated by Sir Toby than launch an investigation into any differences that may exist between the sister and brother. For his part, Sebastian seems to think that nature caused Olivias consistency in being sexually attracted to a woman who looks just like him. But like Orsino, Olivia is eager for the sexual experience promised by marriage. Olivia is actually very much steeped in Orsinos selfsame deception. She was in love with the image of a man, not a man, admitting she was suffering from a most extracting frenzy of mine own (5.1.265). With this admission, Olivia too returns to being as she was at the beginning, involved in a self-deceiving sexual game, as Cesario had lamented: Poor lady, she were better love a dream (2.2.23). Although Sebastian notes that he sees the reality and thinks it a dream, Olivias relationship with Sebastian will ostensibly have to be re-defined, as will Orsinos with Viola. Pequigney observes: Like Orsino, Olivia goes through a homoerotic phase that lasts through and beyond betrothal; both have experiences that evince their bisexuality. Nor do they ever pass beyond it, for the sine qua non of their psychological development his away from fruitless doting on her, hers away from fixation on a dead brother and it has a crucial, integral, and unerasable part in both their love stories, that of Orsino with Cesario/Viola and that of Olivia with Cesario/Sebastian. FN5 Twelfth Night not only asks the comic question of how an individual gets out of tune with society, but also the tragic question of why the individual behaves this way, and why society insists upon its standards. FN6 This play is unique in that it asks these questions simultaneously, and within the context of the sexual games of the play, the answers can be found in the most basic and defining activity of human kind: sex.

Social Networks are affecting negatively on relationships Essay

Social Networks are affecting negatively on relationships - Essay Example At the same time, many of the couples find that digital apparatus facilitate interaction and support. A majority of those in relationships maintain they operate separate email and social media accounts though a small number indicate that they share accounts. This paper looks to discuss the negative influence of the social networks on relationships. It is significant to note that social networks have negative effects that influence relationships negatively in a great way. One of the negative effects of the social networks on relationship is that it gives a false sense of association. Social networks make its hard to differentiate between the significant relations that couples foster in the actual globe, and the numerous casual relationships developed through social networks. By focusing so much of their time, resources and energy on the less important associations weaken their actual relationships in the real world. The real relations will weaken because of the less time, effort, and energy that they get. Less attention on the real relations and much attention on the casual relation across the social media in most cases have resulted in the death of many relations. Another negative influence of the social media on relationships concerns the issue of privacy. Social network sites inspire people to be more public concerning their private existence. The inspiration leads to many of the couples posting about their intimate details since it is simple to post them. What is more is that the issues they post remain accessible indefinitely. The details, in most case, have been found to prompt a negative backlash depending on the details that the couples posts. In return, the couples end up quarreling and fighting affecting their relations detrimentally. Social media affects the privacy of the relations, and it has brought many hurtful experiences to many couples across the globe. In addition, social networks have led to decreased

Critical Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 7

Critical Summary - Essay Example Experiencing the pleasure associated with the sexual activity results in satisfaction of the human sexual desire. The reductionist account of sex is based on the premise of sexual desires being satisfied through sexual activity. The intetionalist account of sex has been developed from the knowledge of interpersonal intetionalist which results in people engaging in sexual activity. As a theory opposing the reductionist account, this account is a result of the physical pleasure which occurs through contact with another person’s body. This commonly causes physical arousal, which is a normal occurrence when individuals have the intention of engaging in physical activity (Morgan, 2003). The intetionalist account commonly focuses on cases where pleasures are derived for the nature and appearances of the sexual partners. The existence of different perceptions regarding sexual pleasure remains the fundamental causes of the differences in sexual accounts. The intetionalist accounts to sex as mainly based on the assumption that individuals are driven by a desire to achieve physical satisfaction from sexual pleasure. The Aristotelian understanding of the human mind has been utilised in seeking to understand the different accounts of sex. According to this understanding human desire are the causes of human actions, hence satisfaction of certain desires encourages individuals to engage in sexual activity. There is an existing marginal connection between the two accounts described within the article. The theory developed by Aristotle seeks to explain the moral psychology behind sexual activities by humans. The psychological element becomes the platform upon which the mental and physical elements meet, consequently presenting the connection between the two accounts, where intetionalist is mental while the reductionist is physical. The individuality and independence of individuals, however, results in the existence of a discrepancy in the experience

Review article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 7

Review - Article Example rcadian process or organization is not influenced by the absence of environmental periodicity; these biological processes continue taking place with regularity at a 24 hour interval. The goal of this research paper is to analyze that which among ‘retina’, ‘pineal’ or ‘parietal eye’ is mainly engaged in the generation and control of circadian rhythm of the body temperature. In order to come to any conclusion, an experiment is carried out on ‘iguana’. Iguana is a genus of herbivorous lizards. According to previous research, In order to check for same objectives, experiments were carried out on other species as well, experiments on Sparrows showed that removal of pineal abolishes circadian body temperature, while experiments on pigeons show that circadian rhythms of locomotor activity and body temperature is abolished by the removal of pineal and the retinas. Different studies showed different results. This study analyzes the circadian system in lizards and its affect by the environment. This research paper evaluates the experiment of seven adults and twenty five juveniles which are put under observation. All lizards are experimented differently, some of them were experimented after the removal of parietal eye, some of them were observed after the retina and pineal surgery. One of the major significance of putting the circadian system under observation is that the study of circadian system is important for determining sleep patterns, hormone release, body temperature and body functions. The results showed that ‘pineal’ is centrally involved in the control of circadian system of the lizards. Apart from coming to the conclusion that among ‘retina’, ‘pineal’ and ‘paternal eye’, ‘pineal’ is the central part that plays an important part in the generation of circadian rhythm of the body temperature it also detects that ‘pineal’ is marginally involved in locomotor rhythmicity. Thus, to conclude it can be said that the study also

The Talented Tenth, by William Edward Burghardt [W.E.B.] DuBois, 1903 Essay

The Talented Tenth, by William Edward Burghardt [W.E.B.] DuBois, 1903 - Essay Example Furthermore, the viewpoint would most likely be somewhat anti-American – this is because he renounced his American citizenship towards the end of his life, and he also was decidedly anti-capitalist, becoming a member of the American Communist party while he still lived in America. All of this would point at a man who was not comfortable in his birth country, not comfortable with the economic circumstances of the country, not comfortable with the economic basis of the country's financial system, and not comfortable with whites, in general. Yet, he was also a person who was passionate about helping blacks become the best that they can be and passionate about assuring that blacks were economically, politically, and civilly on par with the whites in America.1 Discussion The document titled â€Å"The Talented Tenth,† which is the topic of this essay, is a primary source. While the book that features this particular writing, titled W.E.B. Du Bois Writings (1986), is a seconda ry source because the book itself was compiled by somebody other than W.E.B. DuBois. The article itself is primary because it was written by W.E.B. DuBois himself. If somebody had written about the ideas of W.E.B. DuBois, then this would be a secondary source. The actual writing is primary. The gist of the article is that the black race must be saved by ten percent of the black population, that is, the most talented among the population, and they must be developed so that they could become the best and lead the worst away from â€Å"contamination and death.†2 The problems and solutions of the article are complex. One of the problems is that there must be strict training for the talented tenth, and the object of training these men must be something other than economic or technical training.3 DuBois states that training these men only in economic or technical skills would be reductive and would not result in these individuals becoming men: â€Å"If we make money the object of man-training, we shall develop money-makers but not necessarily men; if we make technical skill the object of education, we may possess artisans but not, in nature, men.†4 The solution to this is that the men would attain higher education that would provide them a well-rounded education – education that would not only increase their intelligence but also their sympathy and their knowledge of the world. DuBois also wrote that prejudice, in general, is a problem. That the whites in America believe that the blacks who are talented and intelligent, who are leading the black race, are the exceptions. As a rule, according to the white race, the blacks are purveyors of â€Å"death, disease and crime.†5 The solution that DuBois proposes is that the best and most capable of the black youth would be schooled at the best colleges and universities. DuBois acknowledges that society has the potential to be â€Å"pulled down† by the worst elements of the black race, whic h would fulfill the white's view that the blacks are ruled by those who are the transmitters of crime, disease and death, but his solution is that the blacks must be lifted up through the talented few who will be trained at these colleges and universities. Judging from the biography of W.E.B. DuBois, the assumptions were mostly borne out through

Toyotas Social Initiatives Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Toyotas Social Initiatives - Case Study Example This essay declares that one of the most important questions that the rise of the modern business corporation has triggered in the minds of men is the following: â€Å"What is the purpose of a business?† Like the human beings that founded, managed, and grew them, corporations have searched for answers to this basic question on the assumption that doing so would give meaning to their existence, their behavior, and the countless short- and long-term business decisions made each day. This paper stresses that the search for an answer is not easy. Why and how does a business begin? Usually, some brave soul discovers a need in society that can be met, a product or a service that can be sold either because no one else is selling it or because s/he thinks it can be improved, made more convenient, or sold at a cheaper price. In the process, the person who discovers this unmet need and can supply it to people who are willing to pay the right price becomes rich. The business grows, expands, competes, and then goes public by listing in the stock market†¦and then what? This is where having a business purpose comes in handy, because making money is the easy part (although most start-up businesses fail, not only in America but in any other part of the world). These successful businesses go beyond finding ways to be profitable and try to discover how to spend those profits. the company’s business goals can be profitable if properly managed.... The business grows, expands, competes, and then goes public by listing in the stock marketand then what This is where having a business purpose comes in handy, because making money is the easy part (although most start-up businesses fail, not only in America but in any other part of the world). These successful businesses go beyond finding ways to be profitable and try to discover how to spend those profits. At first, companies were happy to share those profits with their managers, employees, and shareholders, but over the years, everyone realized that there were limits to the amount of money one could spend. In their search for a purpose, they came up with several answers. Adam Smith, in his Wealth of Nations, Book III entitled "Of the Natural Progress of Opulence" (Bartleby 2001) entreated private businesses to go beyond profits and create surpluses for export because this would lead to progressive wealth resulting in the improvement of the standard of living and the cultivation of society, a sort of heaven on earth where everyone would be happy. Drucker (1955) argued that the creation of value is the purpose of the organization, and that the purpose of business is to create and keep a customer. Friedman (1962) also emphasized that the social responsibility of business is to increase profits and maximize shareholder return without breaking the law, and that it is not the purpose of business to take care of society. Two prominent thinkers disagreed. Freeman (1984), the pioneer of stakeholder theory, defined (p. 48) stakeholders as "groups and individuals who can affect the organisation" and that "managerial behaviour must respond to those groups and individuals." Freeman argued that a business must go

Knolege creatain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Knolege creatain - Essay Example niversities are responsible for this in efficient growth of clusters and business industries are putting in no effort to make use of them for growth and innovation. Each sector has to play a certain role with constant coordination to overcome crises. Grant (1996) suggests that knowledge infuses increased performance opportunities for firms able to understand, and utilize relevant knowledge efficiently. The role of a business industry is to sponsor extensive funds for research work to universities who are struggling hard to raise funds beside their limited funds from government to bring in exceptional innovations, technology and knowledge. Mode 2 is interconnected and not possible without a thorough work of mode 1, therefore business industry should collaborate with universities to carry on research and expand the area of innovative knowledge with practical experiments over it and simultaneously, business industry should give internships, job training and design an individual area to comprehend mode 1 studies into mode 2 work which can examine the loopholes in academic knowledge and its implementation in practical experiences which is not possib le in isolated environment of universities. This changing wave of knowledge economy has a great impact and acts as a driving force towards new opportunities for industries and will smooth the dynamics between universities and industries in the long run. Students independently cannot achieve a complete combination of theoretical and practical work if exposure is not provided but can help demonstrate through their university projects, though not sufficient to unfold their growing minds but can contribute. It is beneficial for students to use their academia through internships or part time jobs in the relevant industry in summers or annual vacations. Universities are the pathways for students but students themselves should take initiative to promote practical enforcement of their academic theories however on large scale,

The Crucible Literary Essay Essay Example for Free

The Crucible Literary Essay Essay Abigail commits many sins and manipulates many people so she can prevent herself from getting in trouble. It all began when she committed adultery. According to the Old Testament, lust is one of the seven deadly sins. Abigail’s lust for John Proctor provokes her to commit adultery with John who is married to Elizabeth. Even though John Proctor isn’t free of blame, Abigail has more responsibility for the affair. After John Proctor realizes that it is wrong to have an affair behind Elizabeth’s back, he tells Abigail â€Å" Abby, I may think of you softly from time to time. But I will cut off my hand before I’ll ever reach for you again. Wipe it out of mind. We never touched. † (Miller, 23) But Abigail says: â€Å"You loved me John Proctor, and whatever sin it is, you loved me yet. † (Miller, 24) She tries to convince John to be with her even though she knows it is wrong. She thinks John will be with her if his wife is gone and tries to curse Elizabeth when she is in the woods dancing with Tituba and other girls. Then she tries to manipulate other girls to help her get what she wants. Abigail is very manipulative. After being accused of witchcraft when she was caught dancing in the forest, she manipulates other girls to do as she says to avoid getting in trouble. At the beginning of Act I, Abigail says to the girls: Now look you. All of you. We danced. And Tituba conjured Ruth Putnam’s dead sisters. And mark this. Let either of you breathe a word, or the edge of a word about the other things, and I will come to you in the black of some terrible night and I will bring a pointy reckoning that will shudder you. Miller, 20) This shows that Abigail is threatening the girls to listen to her and do as she says so Abigail can stay out of trouble. When Abigail knows that she is able to easily influence the girls, she abuses her power by making false accusations. Abigail starts to make false accusations when she is at Parris’s house after seeing Tituba confess and get saved by God. She knows confessing and accusing other people of associating with the Devil wi ll allow her to be saved too. At the end of Act I, Abigail says:† I saw Goody Hawkins with the Devil†¦ I saw Goody Booth with the Devil! (Miller, 48) Afterwards, Abigail starts to gain more power because people believe she has the ability to see who has associated with the Devil. Abigail abuses her power to accuse even more innocent people. One day, Elizabeth Proctor finds out that Abigail accused her of practicing witchcraft. She says to John: â€Å"It is her dearest hope, John, I know it. There be a thousand names; why does she call mine? She thinks to take my place, John. † (Miller, 61) This shows that Abigail is accusing Elizabeth because she is spiteful that Elizabeth is married to John. Many other people are accused and eventually, those who are accused but do not confess are put to death. The power and influence Abigail has over the people of Salem has resulted in the death and misery of many people. Her false accusations made the court suspicious of the accused victims. Those who didn’t want to lie to the judges, such as John Proctor and Martha Corey are hung. However, â€Å"twenty years after the last execution, the government awarded compensation to the victims still living, and to the families of the dead. This means all of the people who were executed or convicted were punished wrongfully. Abigail is indirectly responsible for the death of many citizens of Salem. If she hasn’t practiced witchcraft or accused people, the witchcraft hysteria in Salem wouldn’t have started. Abigail is a hypocrite who falsely accuses others of practicing witchcraft while committing countless sins herself. Her influence over the people of Salem has caused the death of many innocent people. Ultimately, she is the villain of â€Å"The Crucible†.

Auditing Standards: Objectives and Importance

Auditing Standards: Objectives and Importance Introduction The regulatory environment makes it mandatory that organizations such as limited liability companies must be audited by an independent external auditor qualified under the regulations of professional bodies internationally or nationally to ensure that the company is working in accordance to the company law set by respective countries. An external auditor functions as an independent body appointed by and reports to shareholders to express an opinion whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, true and fair and in accordance to the applicable financial reporting framework (Pflugrath G., Martinov-Bennie N. and Chen L., 2007). In reporting to the shareholders, the auditor provides reasonable assurance whereby they do not guarantee financial statements are free from material misstatements but rather at an acceptable level. Professional bodies worldwide carries a duty to set auditing standards to play a role of assisting auditors in performing duties in order t o provide high level of confidence to intended users of the Financial Statements (Noreen, 1988; Siegel et al., 1995; Wotruba et al., 2001). Main Report Development of auditing standards There are three regulatory environments which govern statutory audits and one of them is auditing standards. At International level, the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) is the global organization for the accounting profession. An independent standard-setting board under IFAC is known as the International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB). The IAASB developed the International Standards on Auditing (ISAs) to be carried out on audit engagements. As for National level, regulations differ as there are various standard setting bodies which choose to adopt the ISAs by modifying it or to set their own standards to suit according to individual countries. In Malaysia, the Malaysian Institute of Accountants (MIA), a member of IFAC is responsible in developing the Malaysian Approved Standards on Auditing (AI) which adopts the modified ISAs. However, the latest development states the implementation of a new board which is the Audit and Assurance Standard Board (AASB) (Cosserat and Rodda, 2009). Importance of the auditing standards. An auditing standard is a form of the current best practice applicable in statutory audit engagements by approved auditors which sets a minimum level of technical proficiency to assure work done is of high quality auditing and at the same time providing high level of assurance ( Jubb and Houghton, 2007; Simnett, 2007). It is a form of benchmarking the intensity of achieving objectives of the professional bodies in being a role model in the accounting profession as stated by Watkins et al. (2004), and also safeguarding the position of auditors whilst auditing financial statements. Through professional and ethical standards such as independency and integrity, Alfredson, K. et al. (2005) states that auditors carry out detailed works to value a subject matter whether it is of true and fair view. Once a conclusion is made, the opinion obtained would determine the level of confidence the public would have towards the financial statements (Alfredson, K. et al., 2005). This adds on to reducing the risk factor faced by users of the financial statements (Martinov, 2004) as it deters directors of an entity to carry out fraudulent activities. At the same time, it also indirectly strengthens the audit profession as the public would have an increased confidence level leading to a better impression towards auditors in general (Simnett, 2007; Dellaportas, Senarath Yapa and Sivanantham, 2008). As procedures of performing a statutory audit is consistent and of principles-based, it becomes less rigid and flexible to be implemented on the audit works carried out on financial statements. Aside from that, as agreed by Noreen, 1988; Siegel et al., 1995; Wotruba et al. (2001); it may be able to reduce time factor as auditors are able to plan and analyze which area are crucial to be tested more and vice versa because they are already well-versed with the audit procedures set by the standards. Nevertheless, this may pose as a threat because the use of their own judgement becomes too subjective and thus, they may tend to be too lenient during audit procedures and bypass on important matters. Auditors could even intentionally choose not to perform so much detailed work and just state financial statements as true and fair since knowingly for the past history, it has been stated as so (Jones et al., 2003; Herron and Gilbertson, 2004). From this matter, it can be of advantage to directors to conduct fraudulent activities because auditors can only consider an opinion on fraud but not able to detect and prevent it. It is the duty of the management and directors to attend to fraudulent possibilities in a company. With that said, they may opt to not comply intentionally by refusing to disclose grey areas in its financial statements or relevant information needed to perform the audit (Cosserat and Rodda, 2009). While stating to be able to achieve high quality audits worldwide, a handful of countries still implement their own auditing standards to suit their national legislations and traditions (Samuels and Piper, 1985; Tarca, 1998; cited in Dellaportas, Senarath Yapa and Sivanantham, 2008). This is probably due to the fact that there are still many underdeveloped countries which do not have professional bodies for such a purpose as this or even countries like in the United States of America whereby they adopt a different standard which is of rule-based (Simnett, 2007). All this may inversely cause a delay and obstruction to harmonization of standards across the globe in conjunction to international convergence (Weetman, 2006). Aside from that, consistent updating and revision of standards poses a need to keep oneself updated leading to a lack of confidence while performing duties due to inaccurate execution of standards implied on audit work as there are limitations to how much one can do at a period of time . Being too technical with regulations may cause auditors to be stiff in their performance and thus, lack appreciation on findings of samples, test objects and the assessment of analytical procedures. Objectives and Activities of IAASB and AASB Work done by the IAASB is monitored by the oversight body known as the Public Interest Oversight Board (PIOB) whereby the publics interest is involved regarding proper disclosures and transparency of issues that concerns to improving the overall mission and to achieve objectives of the professional body (Dellaportas, Senarath Yapa and Sivanantham, 2008). IAASB came up with a development of a program in the year 2004, which functions to redraft the entire ISAs either partially to alter areas in the ISAs or to fully inflict new clarity conventions where applicable. The Clarity Project reached a level of completion upon verification by the PIOB and now contributes thirty-six newly clarified standards as guidelines in assurance engagement by qualified auditors worldwide (Accountants Today, June 2009). Judging from the fact that the standards now clearly identifies the objectives and obligations an auditor faces, a better understanding of the entire concept and public awareness are gained (Buchanan, F.R., 2003). The newly improved standards are by-far less technical and thus, easily to be adopted by practitioners to be implemented on procedures carried out for assurance engagement. The whole purpose of conducting the clarity project is to make the standards more appropriate and updated with the recent environment and at the same time to assist and update users of relevant information and a clearer view of utilizing each standard for the benefit of the public (Dellaportas, Senarath Yapa and Sivanantham, 2008). The confidence of the public in financial reporting activities would eventually be increased (Alfredson, K., Leo, K., Picker, R., Pacter, P. and Radford, J., 2005). It is in a way a good thing to constantly upgrade and redraft the standards to suit the current reporting environment (Humphrey, C. and Turley, S., 2006). However, there may be a slight disadvantage in the sense of making the revised standards known to its users. The professional bodies would need to conduct seminars or post notices to all members of the professional bodies to inform them of such amendments that has taken place. This eventually takes time and efforts and may even incur a slight cost to be carried out. Likewise the IAASB, the AASB plays a similar role in upholding an acceptable level of quality professional services and high ethical behaviour amongst practitioners. The MIA further justified the desire of standing-out in the standard-setting process hoping that Malaysian market can be integrated internationally so that viewpoints can be mentioned earlier instead of getting secondhand attention in order to evolve standards that are more suitable to the nature of the Malaysian market (Izma N., 2009). Implementing the ISAs by the AASB is a form of making efforts to enhance the financial markets of Malaysia in becoming more competitive and stable. At the same time, it also improves professional integrity and quality of audit works by auditors. Under the patronage of the MIA, AASB will continue to meet stringent expectations of stakeholders as well as moving towards a holistic international convergence of standards and enhance confidence of users through proper guidance in audit and assurance services. This may prove to be a good step ahead in conjunction to be inline with the harmonization of standards in the world today and also to groom the financial position of the country in order to boost confidence of the public once again (Chan and Leung, 2006). Thus, compliance with auditing standards such as the ISAs and enforcing it into objectives and responsibilities stated by the professional bodies need to be acted out quickly so as to not fall behind in time because it can be quite a lengthy process which is not achievable overnight (Izma N., 2009). Further Regulations Codes of Corporate Governance Corporate governance is the system whereby companies are directed and controlled. Cosserat and Rodda, 2009 mentioned that it is useful in avoiding matters such as conflicts of interest seen in the agency theory between the managers (agents) and the shareholders (principal). In accordance to the UK Combined Codes of best practices, the board of an entity is encouraged to form an audit committee to guard the independence and objectivity of auditors. An audit committee plays a role as an independent point of reference to turn to regarding issues of conflict between the board of directors and the external auditors. Aside from that, in order to improve external audit procedures, they have a duty to monitor the integrity of directors in preparing financial statements. Codes of Ethics The onus is always on the auditor not only to be ethical but also to be seen as ethical. The International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants (IESBA) establishes a conceptual framework for all practitioners to adhere to five rules: integrity, objectivity, professional competence and due care, confidentiality and professional behaviour. Threats to these principles are to be identified and applied with respective safeguards to mitigate it. Auditors are subjected to ethical requirements by professional bodies because the public relies on auditors to produce an independent opinion during assurance engagements (Pflugrath G., Martinov-Bennie N. and Chen L., 2007). They further elaborated that a high quality audit, comprising of professional competence and due care characteristics need to be conducted as auditors have access to confidential information of the entity. Company Law An auditor is required to perform an annual audit abiding by statutory duties to report to shareholders on whether financial statements are of a true and fair view and in accordance to approved standards. They need to be independent and diligent and state if sufficient information has been obtained and that the company has kept proper records according to the law. The auditor must also list out deficiencies of their findings in the auditors report. The company law also determines the rights, appointment, removal and resignation of auditors and the liability of auditors to shareholders and third parties (Cosserat and Rodda, 2009). Conclusion The outcome of these findings discussed has added knowledge to a better understanding of the entire audit and assurance cycle. The duties of an external auditor must be based on appropriate conceptual frameworks developed either internationally or nationally according to the suitability of respective countries. They need to perform a statutory engagement required by the company law, which is of high but not absolute assurance that the financial statements are free from material misstatements. An overview of the establishment of auditing standards, its objectives and importance to benchmark the quality of auditors in performing duties and corporate governance, company law and ethical codes as additional regulations in enhancing the role of auditors were identified. Furthermore, the main idea of distinguishing IAASB and AASB on its functions and activities in the world today has added knowledge to the depths of ones mind. Thus, the respective standards-setting boards need to further en hance and strengthen its actions and procedures in order to achieve international convergence and quality standards to serve the public better and increase in its objectivity effectiveness.

The Chrysalids: The Importance of Telepathy :: The Chrysalids

The Chrysalids:   The Importance of Telepathy    Some people dream about having an ability to communicate through mental telepathy.   Some even claimed to have this ability but it played an important role in the novel The Chrysalids.   The author created an interesting environment.   There was no communication and the only people who could communicate between each other were the ones that had the power of telepathy.   Because in some areas the land was so dangerous because of the radiation that people were cut of from another and left on a small piece of land.   They could not communicate.   Though-shapes not only developed the plot of the story but greatly affected the lives of some characters and might affect Waknuk.   Ã‚  Ã‚   We all know that people in Waknuk were very superstitious but did it actually help the plot to develop?  Ã‚   On page 91 through 103 finally and idea gets out about some people being able to communicate through thought-shapes.   When Katherine and Sally got caught and tortured they finally tell some of the names to the inspector.   This forces David, Rosalind and Petra to runaway to the fringes, and they established some kind of contact with a woman from Sealant (Zealand, On page 134).   The help that the sealant woman promised is on their way to the fringes.   The plot is greatly influenced, David learns more things as the time goes on.   He discovers who is the Spiderman(Gordon) and where is Sophie.   He meets them and learn what it is like to live in the fringes.   When the sealant woman rescues David, Rosalind and Petra they are brought to a big, developed city like the one in David's dreams. Because of the telepathy David discovers that such a city really exists but most of all through Petra they establish contact with a more civilized people than they are.   Because of the conflicts in the story it leads the main characters to discover the sealant city.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Telepathy not only affects the plot of the story but also the main characters in the novel.   The most obvious thing is that David, Rosalind and Petra are saved.   They have a chance to learn, experience new things they never saw or heard before.

Abigail Adams: Influential Wife of President John Adams :: Biography Biographies Essays

Abigail Adams: Influential Wife of President John Adams Abigail Adams was a unique women because she had an education and an interest in politics. She learned how to read and write and enjoyed poems most. She was also very resourceful by helping her husband on difficult problems. Abigail was born on November 11 on the Julian calendar, or November 22 on the modern Gregorian calendar. Abigail had two sisters named Mary and Elizabeth or Betsy. She had one brother named William or Billy. Abigail's name was originally Abigail Smith. Each baby was baptized on the first Sabbath of its life and was recorded in their parish records. Abigail live in a comfortable house. When Abigail was sixteen, her father added a wing that was bigger than the original building to make room for the children, servants, and visitors. When I say servants it means that they were probably slaves but were called servants to avoid the dehumanizing effect that the word 'slave' can mean. Their house was a sight of luxury in the eyes of the common folk in the parish. Though they lived well, the Smiths had no fortune. Abigail's father often worked with his own hands, planting corn and potatoes, gathering hay, sowing barley, or making sure that his sheep received proper care. Abigail, with the help of her family grew a very religious bond between each other and a long lasting friendship. Abigail never went to a real school because of poor health. So, she learned at home. Her father's library was not big, but she still went to it to read books. Abigail's favorite books were novels by Samuel Richardson. Abigail's father knew John Adams by working with him and she grew rather close to him starting a wedding. This now made her name Abigail Adams. Their wedding was held on October 25, 1764, a month before her twentieth birthday. John was a lawyer and very often was not at home due to court cases he had to attend to. When Abigail was pregnant with her first son, John was only at home for eight out of the nine months. The baby was born on a hot day on the morning of July 14, 1765. The baby's name was 'Abigail', but was called Nabby. She was with her parents when she had the baby. Shortly after, she was again pregnant. Abigail Adams: Influential Wife of President John Adams :: Biography Biographies Essays Abigail Adams: Influential Wife of President John Adams Abigail Adams was a unique women because she had an education and an interest in politics. She learned how to read and write and enjoyed poems most. She was also very resourceful by helping her husband on difficult problems. Abigail was born on November 11 on the Julian calendar, or November 22 on the modern Gregorian calendar. Abigail had two sisters named Mary and Elizabeth or Betsy. She had one brother named William or Billy. Abigail's name was originally Abigail Smith. Each baby was baptized on the first Sabbath of its life and was recorded in their parish records. Abigail live in a comfortable house. When Abigail was sixteen, her father added a wing that was bigger than the original building to make room for the children, servants, and visitors. When I say servants it means that they were probably slaves but were called servants to avoid the dehumanizing effect that the word 'slave' can mean. Their house was a sight of luxury in the eyes of the common folk in the parish. Though they lived well, the Smiths had no fortune. Abigail's father often worked with his own hands, planting corn and potatoes, gathering hay, sowing barley, or making sure that his sheep received proper care. Abigail, with the help of her family grew a very religious bond between each other and a long lasting friendship. Abigail never went to a real school because of poor health. So, she learned at home. Her father's library was not big, but she still went to it to read books. Abigail's favorite books were novels by Samuel Richardson. Abigail's father knew John Adams by working with him and she grew rather close to him starting a wedding. This now made her name Abigail Adams. Their wedding was held on October 25, 1764, a month before her twentieth birthday. John was a lawyer and very often was not at home due to court cases he had to attend to. When Abigail was pregnant with her first son, John was only at home for eight out of the nine months. The baby was born on a hot day on the morning of July 14, 1765. The baby's name was 'Abigail', but was called Nabby. She was with her parents when she had the baby. Shortly after, she was again pregnant.

Stress in College: What Causes it and How to Combat it Essay -- Main C

Many first year college students face problems as they enter a new educational environment that is very different than that of high school. However, the common problem is that many first year students become stressed. For many students, college is supposed to be the most fun time of their life; however, their fun can be restricted if it is limited by stress and other mental illnesses. According to the National Health Ministries (2006), stress is caused by â€Å"greater academic demands,† the feeling of being independent from family, â€Å"financial responsibility,† homesickness, being exposed to meeting new people, peer pressure, â€Å"awareness of one’s own sexual identity,† and the abuse of drugs and alcohol (p. 2). However, the causes to first year students’ stress mainly include academic demand, parents, finance, and peer pressure. Stress is an important problem faced by many college students, especially first year students, and it can have some large impacts on college freshmen. For example, according to Hirsch and Keniston (1970), about half of first year students do not graduate from college due to dropping out (p. 1-20). Also, David Leonhardt (2009) agrees that the United States excels at putting â€Å"teenagers in college, but only half of students who enroll end up with a bachelor’s degree† (p. 1). In addition, the level of stress seems to increase each year. For instance, the National Health Ministries (2006) claim that many college students have become â€Å"more overwhelmed and stressed† than the student generation of the last fifteen years (p. 2). Also, the percentage of first year students feeling stressed is greater than thirty percent (National Health Ministries 2006). If the problem of stress is not resolved properly, th... ...-funding Lederman, Doug (2005). Pressure on College Prices. Inside Higher Ed. http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2005/04/20/access Lehigh University. Challenges in College. http://www.lehigh.edu/~incso/challenges.shtml Leonhardt, David (2009). Colleges Are Failing in Graduation Rates. New York Times, p. 1. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/09/business/economy/09leonhardt.html?_r=1 Lipman, Marc. Personal Interview. March 21, 2010. Marano, Hara E (2004). The Pressure from Parents. Psychology Today. Reviewed on January 24, 2007. http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200405/the-pressure-parents National Health Ministries (2006). Stress & The College Student. The University of Illinois at Chicago. http://www.uic.edu/depts/wellctr/docs/Stress%20and%20the%20College%20Student.pdf Zinsser, William. College Pressures. Norton-Simon Publishing, 1978.

Poem Comparison: ‘Island Man’, ‘Two Scavengers…’ Essay

Compare ‘Island Man’ with one other poem, to show how the poets use people to explain the conflict that can exist between and within different cultures. People are at the centre all communities. They embody the values, customers and ideas that particular culture possesses. By examining how people behave and think, it is possible to gain a greater understanding of how their cultural roots affect them. ‘Island Man’ describes how an immigrant in London reacts to his environment as he dreams of his Caribbean home. In contrast, the people in ‘Two Scavengers†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ all live in San Francisco, but lead totally different lives there. ‘Island Man’ uses structure to show the conflicting and confused waking thoughts of the man. There is no punctuation, the line lengths vary and some phrases are totally misplaced, as is the individual: â€Å"he always comes back groggily groggily†. Like ‘Island Man’, ‘Two Scavengers†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ also has no punctuation. It represents an instant in time, like the flash of a camera. The conflicting images seem to be laid one on top of the other, line by line, emphasising the contrasts between the two lifestyles. The language in ‘Island Man’ shows the inner turmoil that the character is going through. The reader gets a series of contrasting images. For example, â€Å"the sound of the blue surf† of the Caribbean conflicts with, the â€Å"grey metallic soar† of London. The â€Å"pillow waves† show the troubled sleep he has had which has caused the ruffles, but also tells of the dreams he has had of his â€Å"emerald island†. The word â€Å"wombing† suggests the sense of security his homeland offers him, in contrast to the faceless â€Å"dull North Circular roar† of London. Contrast is also used in ‘Two Scavengers†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, but here it is the contrast of the different types of people: the woman is â€Å"casually coifed†, the older man is â€Å"grungy†. Although the young men’s hair and glasses are similar, their appearances are mostly very different; the â€Å"hip three-piece linen suit† conflicts with the â€Å"red plastic blazers†. The use of vocabulary is effective in both poems. Some words, such as â€Å"soar†, â€Å"roar† and â€Å"surge† have double meanings: they are positive when they relate to his island, but have negative meanings in London. In ‘Two Scavengers†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, descriptive words are used to highlight the differences between the people. For example, â€Å"scavengers† are unworthy compared to â€Å"an elegant couple†. The poet uses this contrast to make a direct criticism of society and how it creates this division between rich and poor people. Phrases like â€Å"small gulf† emphasise how these people may only be a few metres apart on the street, but, in terms of their lifestyles, they will never meet. Both poets show how the people feel in their different situations and give us their own view. ‘Island Man’ obviously has fond memories of the Caribbean but resents his dull lifestyle in London. We can feel his depression as he â€Å"heaves himself† to â€Å"Another London day†. Grace Nichols has sympathy for this man as he feels the conflict of these two cultures. The feelings revealed in ‘Two Scavengers†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ are very one-sided, as we have the envy of the poor, â€Å"as if they were watching some odorless TV ad / in which everything is always possible,† contrasting with the uncaring attitudes of the rich, who don’t even seem to notice the truck or its passengers. The poet’s attitude here is one of despair at this unequal society. ‘Island Man’ has made me more aware how it might feel to be trapped in a foreign country, while ‘Two Scavengers†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ starkly highlights the divisions in American society. The poems have made me hope that in the future, society will be more equal and that governments who promise equal opportunities for all will deliver on what they say.

Commercial item transport and distribution Essay

There has been a gradual change in the mode of packaging for last years.For instance, earlier fruits and vegetables were used to be transported in wooden boxes but today cardboard crates are used .This is mainly to reduce the cost. Obviously,a cardboard crate would cost less than wooden crate. Moreover,using cardboard crates is more eco friendly than cutting trees and making wooden boxes and supporting an environmental cause helps firms improve their goodwill and eventually their sales. Similarly,selling of milk,first in glass bottles,then in packets, then tetra packs and vending machines is all to reduce costs or improve their goodwill by innovating the mode of packaging. Tetra pack keeps the milk safe for months and is made of paper and can be recycled. Plastic packets incur lesser costs and vending machines in itself have no packaging cost. So,companies use new and unique mode of packaging to ,one,reduce their costs,two,to promote the product. Packaging refers to the container or wrapper that holds a product or group of products. Most commercial packaging serves two basic functions: protecting the product from damage during shipping, and promoting the product to the ultimate consumer. Some common types of packaging include shipping cartons, containers for industrial goods, and bags, boxes, cans, and other holders for consumer products. Packaging is of great importance to both sellers and buyers of products. It can prevent spoiling, breakage, tampering, or theft; enhance convenience in use or storage; and make products easier to identify. A significant improvement in packaging can even create a â€Å"new† product by expanding the ways in which it can be used, and thus its potential markets. For example, a soup that is packaged in a microwavable bowl might suddenly increase its sales to working people. Prior to World War II, packaging was used primarily to surround and protect products during storage, transportation, and distribution. Some packages were designed with aesthetic appeal and even for ease-of-use by the end consumer, but package design was typically left to technicians. After World War II, however, companies became more interested in marketing and promotion as a means of enticing customers to purchase their products. As a result, more manufacturers began to view packaging as an integral element of overall business marketing strategies to lure buyers. This increased attention to packaging coincided with socioeconomic changes taking place around the world. As consumers became better educated and more affluent, their expectations of products—and their reliance on them—increased as well. Consequently, consumers began to rely much more heavily on manufactured goods and processed food items. New technologies related to production, distribution, and preservatives led to a massive proliferation in the number and type of products and brands available in industrialized nations. Thus, packaging became a vital means of differentiating items and informing inundated consumers. The importance of consumer packaging was elevated in the United States during the late 1970s and 1980s. Rapid post-war economic expansion and market growth waned during that period, forcing companies to focus increasingly on luring consumers to their product or brand at the expense of the competition. Package design became a marketing science. And, as a new corporate cost-consciousness developed in response to increased competition, companies began to alter packaging techniques as a way to cut production, storage, and distribution expenses. Furthermore, marketers began to view packaging as a tool to exploit existing product lines by adding new items and to pump new life into maturing products. Today, good package design is regarded as an essential part of successful business practice. Since many potential customers first notice a new product after it has arrived on the shelves of a store, it is vital that the packaging provide consumers with the information they need and motivate them to make a purchase. But packaging decisions involve a number of tradeoffs. While making a product visible and distinctive may be the top priority, for example, businesses must also comply with a variety of laws regarding product labeling and safety. Protecting products during transport is important, but businesses also need to keep their shipping costs as low as possible. study mode material : Disadvantages of wooden crates- Deterioration * After wooden pallets are used several times, the wood begins to wear. It splinters, cracks and even breaks under the pressure of continued use. The deterioration is natural and occurs eventually, even if the wood is treated to repel moisture and to strengthen it. This disadvantage leads to replacement much sooner than with plastic pallets. Infestation * Wooden pallets are more susceptible to infestation by termites, ants and other insects that make their home inside the wood. Pallets stored outdoors are more likely to succumb to infestation than the ones kept within a warehouse. The insects burrow into the wood, eating away at it and thus weakening what should be a support structure.. Cleanliness * In addition to germs, wooden pallets are collectors of dirt and debris. Cleaning them becomes more and more difficult over time as the pallets age. They must be heat-treated to get rid of the contamination and washed to be rid of dirt and debris. However, the heat accelerates deterioration, and the water, if improperly dried, can feed mold spores that thrive on wood and harm the vegetables and fruits inside it. Advantages of cardboard crates- Protects Items * As packaging, cardboard protects vegetables being shipped or moved. Corrugated cardboard often has multiple pieces of cardboard placed on top of each other to cushion soft vegetables. Cheap Material * Cardboard is cheap to produce, and is usually made from recycled materials and doesn’t cost much money if purchased wholesale. Other packaging materials are made from plastic, wood or metal, all expensive materials that are often heavier then cardboard, which adds†¦ [continues] Read full essay

Business Environment Essay

The successful accomplishment of this case study is the outcome of the contribution of number of people, especially those who have given the time and effort to share their thoughts and suggestions to improve the report. At the beginning, I would like to pay my humble gratitude to the Almighty God for giving me the ability to work hard under pressure. This report on â€Å"Case study on Business Environment† is prepared through continuous research for a period of about one month. This long span of work would not have been possible without the help of various generous hands. My sincere gratitude to my course instructor, for his supervision on this report. He has given a lot of assistance in coordinating the whole report. Without his perseverance and guidance this report would have been a pile of worthless paper. Page 2 of 17 Table of Content Topic Executive Summary Understanding the organisational purposes of businesses 1.1 Identify the purposes of different types of organization considering their legal structure and types (private company, public company, and voluntary organisation, co-operative, charitable) 1.2 Describe the extent to which an organisation meets the objectives of different stakeholders 1.3 Explain the responsibilities of an organisation and strategies employed to meet stakeholder interests; conflict of expectations; satisfying stakeholder objectives Understanding the nature of the national environment in which businesses operate 2.1 Explain how economic systems attempt to allocate resources effectively 2.2 Assess the impact of fiscal and monetary policy on business organisations and their activities 2.3 Evaluate the impact of competition policy and other regulatory mechanisms on the activities of a selected organization. Understanding the behaviour of organisations in their market environment 3.1 Explain how market structures determine the pricing and output decisions of businesses. 3.2 Illustrate the way in which market forces shape organisational responses using a range of examples. 3.3 Judge how the business and cultural environments shape the behaviour of a selected organization. Assessing the significance of the global factors that shape national business activities 4.1 Discuss the significance of international trade to UK business organizations 4.2 Analyse the impact of global factors on UK business organizations 4.3 Evaluate the impact of policies of the European Union on UK business organizations Recommendations References    Executive Summary First of all I have introduced the company named ‘Sainsbury’s and after that I will describe organisational purposes, nature of the national environment, the behaviour of organisations in their market environment and implication of the global factors that shape national business activities. Sainsbury’s is one of the UK’s leader retailers, currently its position is just after Tesco, who is occupying the market leading position. Anyway Sainsbury’s t offer high quality with great value products and services ranging from food, cloths, daily household needs etc. they employed over than 152,000 (2012) people in the UK, and have more than 1,016stores in UK .Their markets is growing rapidly, recently they have planned to expand more in overseas markets. In brief, I am going to identify the purpose of different types of organisation, their responsibilities, strategies based on the present market situation, trade policies, and behaviours as well as economic, government and the world trade organization impacts on the organization. Then the explanation of market structures, market forces that shape the organisation’s response and impact of business and cultural environment on the organisation. Finally I will discuss the impact of the global factors and how policies of the European Union affect UK business organisations. Page 4 of 17 Understand the organisational purposes of businesses 1.1 Identify the purposes of different types of organization considering their legal structure and types. A business can be organized as follows: Proprietorship: has a singly owner, known as proprietor, who manages the business; proprietorships tend to be small business or professional services, such as accountants, lawyer Partnership: joins two or more persons as co-owners, each owner is a partner and the partnership deal can be done, it is called a mutual, mutual Agency: Organization: this organization, owned by shareholders, these people who own shares in the organization, is a certificate representing ownership in a organization, the business is a organization, when the State approved the articles of incorporation, and the first stock share published article to the lines that have been approved by the administration of the State Corporation, unlike sole proprietorship and partnerships. Public joint stock organization, limited liability organization offers limited liability to its owners and management. If want to be, that the organization can make the organization sells shares to investors, it is useful in attracting capital. Only limited liability organization can be listed on the Stock Exchange, and the character of their stocks has a suffix. So, British Petroleum PLC and BP ticker. A private organization may issue shares and shareholders. But their shares are not on public exchanges and were not granted for the initial public offering. Voluntary organizations: It’s an organization with random or regular volunteer for exploitation and may or may not have paid employees. Voluntary organization is characterized by independence of the State; organize themselves through the unpaid Board membership; Membership that is not received or ordered; support for the charity; are not for profit Cooperative Organization: Page 5 of 17 The organization owned, managed and operated by a group of users in their favor. Each Member must contribute capital and share in the control of the organization on the basis of the principle of one Member one vote. Charity: Embedded or included tax exempt; developed and used for charitable purposes ;uses its own funds for these charitable activities under its direct control; does not to distribute any part of the turnover is generated for each curator, trustier, Member, or any other individuals and does not associated with political organizations. 1.2 Describe the extent to which an organisation meets the objectives of different stakeholders The upper diagram shows Different stakeholders are engaged in an organization that have different objectives and needs which are served by the organization. Here as follows, a) Investors. Investors are concern regarding the risk of investments, interest and overall return. They need information to determine if he/she should buy, keep or sell. The shareholders are interested about the stability and profitability of organization. Organizations provide information that makes them assess the dividends. b) Staff. Organization meets the employers’ expectations through salary, bonuses and ensures safe environment for the employers. c) Lenders. They are interested in the information for their Loans and trade credits. An organization paid them back as sale proceeds come from customers end. Page 6 of 17 d) Suppliers and other vendors, who are likewise interested in information to determine whether their supplies and trade credits safe or not. An organization paid off to them for their supplies. e) Clients keep their eye on organization’s commitment, or market position. Organization ensures their interest through growth of business. f) Governments institutions, Organization help the government in the allocating the resources under country’s business regulation practices also by paying tax which are part of fundamental national income of the country. g) Public, An organization help people to find employment thus help to develop local economy as well as the country. They also help to encourage local suppliers and information about the trend and overall productivity of the country. 1.3 Explain the responsibilities of an organisation and strategies employed to meet stakeholder interests; conflict of expectations; satisfying stakeholder objectives Responsibilities of an Organisation An Organization and various forms of responsibilities to the stakeholders and at the same time they take best effective strategies to meet stakeholder’s interest, conflict of expectation and towards satisfying their objectives. Different stakeholders have different priorities in case of organizational responsibilities which are as follows: Employees: Organization needs to ensure good working environment and proper payment. Shareholders: Organization responsibilities towards their shareholder are to make sure about their profit and dividend. Government and their Institution: Proper allocation of resources, employment solution, follow business regulation of the country, pay corporate tax on time etc are organization’s responsibility towards government and supporting institutions. Customer: Ensuring best quality of goods and services at lowest possible price is an important responsibility of organization. Besides above responsibilities, every organization has been introduced with some new concept of responsibilities which is known as Corporate and Social Responsibility (CSR). Can be subdivided into four criteria (John M. Bryson, 2009) Understand the nature of the national environment in which businesses operate 2.1 Explain how economic systems attempt to allocate resources effectively The economic system is composed of various processes in the Organization and motivation of work production, distribution and circulating, including products and services. Consumer goods, machinery, tools and other technologies. There are three types of economic systems: Market Economy: this market to a minimum level of government intervention is kept or forgotten and economic resources among the private sector as well as the mechanism of price will determine how many products or services will be delivered in accordance with the requirements of the market. Centrally planned Economy System: The Government makes all the plans for economic resources and economic activities which can be seen on in Asia, Centre of Europe, Cuba, Iran and Iraq have these economic systems. In this process unemployment will not be a problem as the Government plan for all economic activities and resources. Mixed economy system: this is so far the best economic system for modern world. A mix of other systems, that is public and private both price mechanism work jointly in this process. And also distributes the resources available in the region. The country, like the United States of America, Canada, and France has this mix economic system, in this process, if one system does not work properly then other works in its process and make balance in the whole economic system. 2.2 Assess the impact of fiscal and monetary policy on business organisations and their activities Government use fiscal policy fiscal revenue and expenditure of the Government. When the Government loans from abroad, it creates lower demand of goods and services. As domestic production decreases this lending policy from abroad can affect the related organization. On the other hand organization can achieve better profits for the added capital when government cut of taxes In case of monetary policy process, thorough which government controls the supply of money within the country, most of the benefits come out when government can stabilize prices and keep Page 9 of 17   As government keeps the interest rate low, people can lend more money. Thus the extra money they can put into production or in the business cycle which in return increases the profit of the organization. On the other hand higher interest rate does the vice versa. In this way controlling monetary policy government can affect the organization of the whole country. 2.3 Influence of the policy of closure and other regulatory mechanisms on the activities of the Organization: The competition targets a market run on the boardwalk and promote better compete it the quality and price. Thus competition contributes to a broader selection of clients in the market and offers the actual and effective price competition between suppliers. With the negotiation of World Trade Organisation (WTO), world leading trading nations signed and ratified in their parliaments. Main goal is to help producers of goods and services, as well as exporters and importers conduct their smooth business. Almost all people want to have their better interests in international trade. As a result international trade and marketing can be broken sooner or later.WTO helps to prevent or mitigate the problems related to the pricing. Profit etc through their details investigation.WTO also covers intellectual property, goods and services, principles of liberalization and including exceptions. The strengthened dispute settlement mechanism of the WTO helps to strengthen to reduce the potential for unilateral and bilateral action outside the multilateral system, proponents of the WTO has long argued that the reduction of trade barriers will increase world trade, but there is hardly a rigorous Empirical research on the impact of WTO or trade or trade policy, although a recent study shows that very little, if any, effects, in another study of the IMF does not agree with this conclusion. Page 10 of 17 Understanding of environmental NGOs in the behaviour of the market 3.1 explain how market structures, determination of the price and output decisions of enterprises. UKs explain the current situation and determine what correct structure would be helpful There are five types of market structure in the UK, and they are following. Perfect competition and perfect competition market Perfect competition market is one where a very large number of buyers and sellers, all distended in the purchase and sale of product, without any unnatural and has a perfect knowledge of the market at the time. With the Koulsayaiannis words are â€Å"the structure of perfect competition market, total absence of rivalry between Individual price takers and where there is freedom of entry into and exit from the industry.† The monopoly market Monopoly is Salvatore as a monopoly is a form of organization of the common market, where there is one organization to sell the item for which there is no change. † There are a number of characteristics of monopoly which †¢ There is only one seller †¢ All control on delivery of product is in the hands of a monopoly †¢ Under the monopoly, the organization itself is an industry; it can be a solo entrepreneur, partnership, JSCs, and etc. †¢ There is no close substitute product monopoly. In the case of cross-border demand elasticity is, in any case, it is possible. †¢ There are restrictions on the entry of other companies in a product monopoly. Page 11 of 17 Duopoly Duopoly is a special case, the theory of oligopoly, where there are only two sellers and they are fully independent and conflict between them. Variations in price and will affect the performance of the other and the other bears the loss must meet the cost of the competitor. Oligopoly Oligopoly is a market where there are several companies that sell or standardized various goods. It is difficult to say, the number of companies in the competition between the pair. A few problems on the market shares of the organization, as a rule, on the other. Oligopoly industry produces a standardized product or different products. This concept is called clean and spotless oligopoly and the last incomplete or oligopoly discrimination, called. Monopolistic competition Monopolistic competition refers to market conditions, when there are many companies that sell a variety of products. â€Å"There is a competition, with enthusiasm, but not perfect, many companies produce very similar products. No organization may not have to reveal the impact on policy, the export of other sellers or price can be very affected by their actions. Define monopolistic competition competition among a large number of Sell of close, but not perfect substitutes for each other. 3.2 Illustrate the way in which market forces shape organisational responses using a range of examples. There are different forces which shape organizational responses to the market. Among them main five markets forces which can shape the responses are given below: Threat of a new entry: Any organization with innovative ideas, technologies and process can affect the existing organization. Threat of a new entry of Sainsbury’s is medium as the business process and environment relatively high barriers for any new entry. Threat of substitute products: Represents a product obtained from industry replacements, perhaps in another area, in this case is the high compensation of marketing competitiveness as Morrison and Asabi are facing big challenge from Tesco in that case. Page 12 of 17 Bargaining power of customers: There are a lot of supermarkets and brands, the customer has the right to choose a product or service that they want and need. In this case competitive price and better quality only can assure business success. Sainsbury’s are in better position with their price and quality though they have to face price war with Tesco and also they face strong challenge from John Lewis and M&S regarding the quality. Bargaining power for suppliers: As there are large numbers of suppliers. Collective bargaining in this situation is weak for the suppliers Rivalry: There is high competition due to large number of suppliers with different price and quality. Sainsbury has to compete both with the price and quality with the other competitor. Through their competency, Sainsbury’s have maintained their reputation and strong position in the market. 3.3 Judge how the business and cultural environments shape the behaviour of a selected organization. As a major retailer Sainsbury’s is well known throughout UK. They are now is one of the best British dealers among the competitors. They also spread their operation USA.they is also planning to spread their market in Asia. Though Sainsbury’s facing tough competition with other retailers, such as Tesco and Asda, but as customers are getting smarter and aware about the quality with price, they are still in a strong position in the market. As we know UK multicultural country with variety of nations, further market researched need to be done with the multicultural food habit, religion and cultures in order to hold the best position in the market. Page 13 of 17 Assessment of the meaning of global factors shaping national activities 4.1 Discuss the importance of international trade for UK business organizations International trade covers trade between United Kingdom and the rest of the world. Any country will have e limited resources of goods, services without international trade. Trade relation between countries and cheap labour and sourcing from developing countries plays an important role in shaping national activities. Moreover of invention and uses of new technologies, access into the cheap sources and labour market also playing a crucial role in shaping the national activities. 4.2 analyze impact of global factors on UK business organizations Globalization has a different impact on UK business: Technology: Organization in have gone through the Internet to promote their products and offer discounts with free delivery on their products to attract clients and makes it easy for them to their products. Sainsbury’s is not behind the progress. Social: Customer tastes change from time to time and from period to period or standard or quality of life. Globalization has put its impact to customers providing variety of taste, attitude and trend and fashions in an advanced way. Political: Political systems that are presently elevated and forced around the world in part to growth of consumption also leading to vast impoverishment and development. We can see the reflection in the UK market as well. Private sectors especially small business and young entrepreneurs are encouraged for business. Trade barriers UK businesses are facing less trade barriers than they used to face before. Page 14 of 17 Environment: Now a day’s people are getting concern day by day regarding green environment. Plastic bags are banned in so many places. People are encouraged to use reusable bags and other eco friendly products, protecting forests. In addition electronics communication are also used instead of printing papers 4.3 assessment of the impact of the European Union’s policy on UK business organizations The European Union has gained more power than before over the policy guidance for the UK business organizations.EU has taken policy to strengthen the industry and move in the direction of eco friendly environment and create jobs. It also helps to promote small companies to grow their business through associating policies, such as competition policy, which helps the fair treatment for all, and reduce costs, improve quality and choice of the customer. EU consumer policy should ensure that the client is protected in their health and safety, as well as help them improve their life. Establishment of Impact Assessment Unit and reduction of regulation cost by EU is also welcome step for UK. Page 15 of 17 Recommendations Sainsbury’s is one of the leading retailer in UK, They meet the stakeholders interest through their superior management quality and also ensuring customers by providing high quality of products. Moreover their dynamic strategies help them to grow rapidly within the limited resources and present government moderate policies. On the contrary, Sainbury’s need be more active to increase number of store in the overseas market and also market research activity especially for the multicultural community. Sainsbury’s have lots of strong competitors like Asda,M&S, Jhon Lewis etc who are also have a good positioning in the market. Actually, the competition lies in the quality and price of the product and services, purchasing behaviour of the customer and of course customer services. In that case they need to find alternative cheap sources from developing countries. Finally, not only the organization, the positive role of the Government, WTO and EU would plays an important role to ensure the overall growth of organizations in UK. Page 16 of 17 References: 1. www.sainsburys.co.uk 2. www.gov.uk/†¦/10-1257-guidelines-for-managing-projects 3. www.investopedia.com/ 4. www.investorguide.com/article/11595/introduction-to-the-economy-fiscal-and-monetary-policy-igu 5. www.wto.org 6. ec.europa.eu/trade/policy 7. www.economicsonline.co.uk/Competitive_markets/Economic_systems.html 8. John M. Bryson, John M. Bryson;Hubert H. Humphrey (2009),’What to do when stakeholders matters? Stakeholder Identification and Analysis Techniques, Institute of Public Affairs’; 9. Thomas, J. C. (1993) ‘Public Involvement and Governmental Effectiveness: A Decision-Making Model for Public Managers. Administration and Society, 24:4 pp444-69. Page 17 of 17

Islam †The Life of Muhammad Essay

A prophet is someone through whom Allah speaks. The Qur’an names 25 prophets, but tradition says there have been 124,000 in all. For Muslims, Muhammad in Allah’s last prophet, known as the ‘seal of the Prophets.’ The exact date of Muhammad’s birth in Mecca is unknown, but it is thought to have been no later than 570 AD. His father was called Abdullah, which means ‘servant of God’ and his mother Aminah- ‘peaceful’. Both were members of the Hashim clan, a sub-division of the Quraysh tribe which had lately abandoned its nomadic life as desert Bedouins and risen to dominate the trading city of Mecca. Muhammad had a sorrowful early childhood. The name Muhammad is said to have been given to him as a result of a dream his grandfather had. He is also said to have had other names, such as Abul-Qasim, Ahmad, and Mustafa. There were many legends about Muhammad. One said that before his birth his mother Aminah heard a voice telling her the child would be a great leader. Another told of a heavy shower of rain, a blessing that ended a long drought. Yet another legend was that two angels removed Muhammad’s heart, washed it clean, then weighed it against first one man, then ten, then a hundred , then a thousand. Finally they said ‘Let it be. Even if you set the whole community in the scale, he would still outweigh it.’ These stories show that Allah was preparing Muhammad for his prohetetic mission in future. His father was dead by the time of his birth and his mother died before he was six, meaning he was raised as an orphan. According to Quraysh law he was to be given to a Bedouin foster mother and sent of into the desert, and would be unable to inherit from his father’s estate. So almost from the beginning of his life he was both poor and something of an outcast from Meccan society. This shows that muslims are taught to trust in Allah’s goodness, and to accept death as a stage in their life and not the end of it. It is, however, known for certain that when he was eight Muhammad was sent to live with his uncle, a merchant called Abu Talib. From the age of 12 Abu Talib took him with him on his long trading trips, which sometimes lasted for many months. A number of stories surround Muhammad in this period of his life. One tells how he and his uncle stopped at a Christian monastery on their travels, and a monk named Bahira recognised the mark of a prophet on Muhammad’s shoulder.His future prophetic status was indicated by certain marks on his body and by miraculous signs in nature. Muhammad first worked as a camel driver, but as both his horizons and business acumen expanded, he became known as The Trusted One (al-Amin) for being fair in his dealings and honoring his obligations. The most important hadith about his early life, and the ones with some of the largest degree of unanimity, are about a trip to Syria, where he was recognised by a Christian monk as Shiloh – the non-Jewish Prophet whose coming was foretold in the book of Genesis. It seems that Muhammad, from an early age, believed himself to be Shiloh, the first and last non-Jewish Prophet who would bring the final message and warning to mankind in the last days before the end of the world. It may have been for this reason that he became something of a mystic, spending long periods of isolated meditation in the desert. From his early twenties onwards he began to have religious experiences and visions of various sorts, but was on the whole confused by their significance. He is also reported to have become a expert on the Jewish and Christian religions and to have engaged in long religious debates with both monotheists and pagans. At the age of 25 Muhammad’s social status changed markedly. He had been employed by a wealthy widow, Khadijah, to run her trading interests and, after they had prospered, she asked him to marry her. He accepted, even though she was to prove faithful, understanding and supportive wife and the marriage was happy. They had six children-two sons, Qusim and Abdullah, and four daughters, Zainab, Ruqaiyyah, Umm Kulthum and Fatima. The two boys died in infancy. The couple had only one surviving child, a daughter called Fatima who in later life became a fanatical Muslim. After her death he had several others, perhaps the best known of whom was the young Aisha. Muhammad’s uncle Abu Talib fell on hard times, and Muhammad repaid his kindness by taking responsibility for his little son Ali. Another child in the house was Zaid ibn Haritha, a slave boy given to Khadijah as a present. One day Zaid’s father, who had been searching for him for years, discovered where he was and offered to buy him back. Zaid was asked what he wished to do and chose to stay with Muhammad. Muhammad was so moved that he freed the boy instantly, and raised him as his own son. At that time Mecca was tumultuous melting pot of Christianity, Judaism, and the various pagan religions practiced by the desert tribes and Meccan clans. Khadijah’s family had been exposed to monotheism, which was growing in popularity in its various forms and it is known that her uncle was a practicing Christian. In contrast, the pagan clan cults of the Qursysh in the city had become decadent, especially in their shameless worship of material goods and worldly wealth and the consequent huge disparities between rich and poor, which Muhammad, with his varied background, was able to appreciate. These problems, springing from the difficult transition of the Quraysh from nomadic poverty to sedentary merchant wealth, concerned him greatly, and social injustice-especially the treatment of orphans like himself-is the theme of many of the early surahs of the Qur’an. The cults of the pagan deser t Bedouin clans, who visited Mecca only occasionally, were equally divisive, degenerate and cruel. Human sacrifice and female infanticide were widely practiced. Each Arab tribe had its own gods and worshiped idols. The most important of these was the House of God (Ka’bah), located in Mecca itself. When Muhammad was a young man it contained 360 pagan idols, worshipped by dozens of separate tribes and clans. His clan, the Hashemites, had the honour of guarding it, through tradition which held that the monument had been re-built by their ancestors Ibrahim and Isma’il after the original- believed to have been built by Adam at the beginning of time- had fallen into disrepair. The Quyrash’s wealth was based on the dozens of pagan cults who used the Ka’bah as their central shrine. They sold idols, and Mecca’s position as a trading city was largely based on contacts made with the visiting tribes. New religions were welcomed as good for business. At first Islam was seen as just another money-making cult and Muhammad was encouraged to use the Ka’ba alongside the others in a spirit of fair and toleration. But in 613 Muhammad began preaching to the public at large, rejecting all other religions, demanding the removal of idols from the Ka’ba and therefore threatening trade. As Quyrash hostility grew Muhammad showed himself to be skillful politician as well as a learned theologian. Steadily he gathered around him the elders of minor clans and middle ranking merchants through preaching a return to the religion of Ibrahim. Whilst the Quyrash continued to ridicule him, called him a madman and an impostor. Muhammad had begun to receive Allah’s final message to mankind in the form of the Qur’an through miraculous revelations which did not come until he was – by the standards of the time- already an old man. The Qur’an Muhammad received his first revelation during the month of Ramadan in the year 610 AD when he was about 40 years old. He was engaged in one of his regular periods of solitary meditation in a cave known as Hira near the top of Mount Jabal Nur, near Mecca, when he received a visitation from the angel Gabriel(Jibreel). Muhammad had experienced religious visions before, but this was quite different. Angel Gabriel (Jibreel) commanded him to ‘Recite in the name of your Lord’, and the Prophet lost control of himself and, Muslims believe, began to speak the actual words of Allah. Eventually he was told to recite what is now the beginning of Chapter 96 of the Koran: Recite in the name of your Lord who created, created man from blood congealed. Recite! Your Lord is the most beneficent, who taught by the pen, taught men that which they did not know. After a short period during which he received no further revelations, they then began again and continued until the end of his life. In the 23 remaining years of his life Muhammad received a total of 114 separate revelations which were compiled as the Qur’an after his death. Muhammad was illiterate so he would repeat each revelation afterwards. Some were written down on whatever was available, from parchment to palm leaves and animals bones, but the majority, in the tradition of the times, were memorized. A year after Muhammad’s death they were collected together by his secretary, Zayd, under the supervision of a committee, shown to many of the Prophet’s companions, and agreed to be accurate. But by about thirty years after his death a number of different versions were circulating and being recited, so a definitive ‘canonical’ version was issued and sent to the four main Islam cities of Basra, Damascus, Kufh and Medina. Two of these original copies still exist today. One is in Tashkent in Soviet Uzbekistan and other is in the Topkapi palace in Istanbul, Turkey. The text is divided into 114 surahs, each containing the words of one revelation. The number of verses, or ayahs, in each surah varies from three to 286 and totals 6,239. Each has a title, and 86 have sub-headings indicating they were received in Mecca, whilst another 28 were received in Medina. The Meccan surahs are shorter, more mystical and warn about the dangers of paganism, marked by vigorous semi-poetic language, and concerned with warnings that men would inevitably be judged by God for their behaviour in this world and severely punished if they did not mend their ways. The Medinan surahs are in general longer, less urgent in tone, and deal in great detail with aspects of Allah’s law such as the rules for declaring war, accepting converts, divorce proceedings and the mandatory punishments for various crimes – more concerne d with the solution of practical problems facing him and his followers. The structure of the Qur’an is unusual and, apparently, illogical. In general the longer Medinan surahs, given last, are at the front of the Book and shorter Meccan surahs, the earliest, at the back. There is no logical explanation for their order but at the same time Western scholars, attempting to reorganise them on this basis, have found that no other order works without splitting the surahs up into scattered verses. Sunni Muslims hold that the order was dictated by Jibree to give the Qur’an an esoteric inner meaning reflecting the Divine rather than human order of things. Acceptance of every word of the Qur’an as the literal word of Allah is a binding obligation on all Muslims. The idea that Muhammad was the author of the Qur’an, or any part of it, is rejected absolutely. At the heart of the Qur’an is the simple, repetitive warning that mankind must renounce paganism, accept Allah as the one God of all mankind and live according to his laws. The message is directly addressed to the pagans, Jews and Christians of Mecca, amongst whom Muhammad lived, complete with threats of dire consequences if they failed to mend their polytheistic ways. The first revelation received by Muhammad deals with this very theme. In another early revelation Allah openly threatens Muhammad’s brother-in-law Abu Lahab, who, as head of his Hashemite clan, had disowned Muhammad and annulled the marriage between his son and Muhammad’s daughter Fatima. Allah also shows himself to be equally angry with Abu Lahab’s wife, who had ridiculed the idea of Muhammad’s Prophethood. The Hijah Muhammad’s flight into exile is the most significant episode in the Prophet’s life apart from the revelations he received which made up the Qur’an. It marks the point in the Prophecy when Allah demanded not just a reform of the religious life of Mecca, but a total break with it. It also marks the start of jihad (Holy War – both spiritual and physical) against the pagan Quyrash and, ultimately, all those oppressing Muslims and opposing by force the spread of Allah’s word. The date of this declaration of war was later chosen as the first day of the Muslim calendar, with 622 the first year of the Age of Hijrah. By this time most of Medina’s population regarded themselves as his followers. Many, in addition, had signed military treaties with his followers in Mecca promising military aid. They now eagerly awaited Muhammad’s declaring of war. But instead, after receiving fresh revelations, he decided to first convert the nomadic Bedouins in the surrounding desert. Between 622 and 628 Muhammad set in motion the biggest tribal avalanche Arabia had ever seen. The tribal chieftains rapidly converted to Islam and joined Muhammad’s army. The process was helped by Islam’s being an entirely new religion free from the feuding assocations of both the localised pagan cults and the ‘foreign’ monotheist doctrines of Judaism and Christainity. Muhammad showed himself to be a brilliant military leader in early skirmishes with the Quyrash and this, along with further revelations promising Allah’s support and certain victory, is likely to have persuaded yet more shayks to join. In just six years Muhammad assembled an army of 10,000 Arabs – a huge force for those times – and marched with the people of Medina against Mecca. The force was so overwhelming the city was taken without resistance. Muhammad issued a general amnesty to the Quyrash and urged them, without pressure, to convert to Islam, which they slowly did. The conquest of Mecca also gave him control of the Ka’bah and he resumed his preaching to pagan pilgrims as they visited the shrine. Conversion was rapid and only nine months after the occupation of Mecca his army had grown to 30,000. More clans and tribes converted to Islam. Muhammad died at Mecca on June 8th 11 AH/632 AD. Respect is shown towards Muhammad by saying peace be upon him (PBUH). He was respected as a man who was close to God, who thought deeply and was kind and wise. Muhammad had known the Ka’ba all his life, with it’s many shines. He had also known the greed, exploitation, lack of compassion of the rich merchants. Muhammad spent his life searching for spiritual guidance, drawing ever closer to God. Islam is not just a matter of ritual prayers or fasting or feasts. It is the conscious bringing of every moment of the day, every decision, every detail of the muslim’s thoughts and actions, into deliberate line with what they accept as being the will of Allah. How is the will of Allah known? The muslim bases all decisions on the revealed words of the Holy Qur’an, the messages that were delivered, over a period of 23 years, to the inspired prophet Muhammad. Not one word in the Qur’an is believed by muslims to be the thought or teaching of Muhammad himself- although he is refered above all human beings as one od the most perfect of Allah’s messengers. Other messengers were Abraham, Moses, Jesus and, in fact, at least 24,000 prohets. Muhammad’s ministry was not based on any mircles other than the receiving of the Qur’an. Muhammad is so important to muslims because be was the last prophet, the seal of all that was revealed to the prophets before him. Muslims family life The Qur’an speaks about the family more than any other topic and deals with the rights and responsibilities of husbands and wives, divorce, orphans, inheritance and so on. The Sunnah also deals with relationships within the family: in one tradition, the Prophet says that a man is the guardian of his family and a women is guardian of her husband’s home and children. Two particular Qur’anic verses underline the Islamic view of the family: . . . he created for you mates that you may dwell in tranquillity with them and he has put love and mercy between your hearts . . . 30:21 We created you from a simple pair of a male and a female. . . that you may know each other (not that you may dispise each other) 49:13 This declares the essential equality between men and women but Islam does not see this as contradicting different roles played by men and women. For example, muslim men carry the heavy burden of family maintenance and are supposed to be the only, or the main, breadwinners supporting not only their wives and children but other married or widowed women in the family. If a man’s wife does not wish to live with his family or anyone else, he must respect her wishes. The major responsibility which falls to the woman is creating a harmonious family atmosphere and bringing up the children. Women may kake up paid work outside the home but it is not expected of them as part of the equal partnership and many muslims feel women should only do so if there is a real need for the money. Mature muslim men and women are allowed to mix at work, in public places and social gatherings. Divorce Islam allows divorce if circumstances warrant or necessitate it. Islam has permitted divorce reluctantly, neither liking nor recommending it. The Prophet of Islam has said: â€Å"Among lawful things, divorce is most disliked by Allah† Islam has not made it necessary that the grounds of divorce should be publicized. It, however; does not mean that Islam views divorce lightly. In fact, publicity of grounds may not be of any positive consequence. The grounds may not be pronounced but genuine. On the other hand, the grounds may be stated and may in reality be false. Islam does not also want washing dirty linen of private affairs in public or in the court except in exceptional circumstances. It is for this reason that court comes in as a last resort in the Islamic scheme of separation of husband and wife. The Quran states as regards grounds of divorce in very general terms: â€Å"And if you fear that the two (i.e husband and wife) may not be able to keep the limits ordered by Allah, there is no blame on either of them if she redeems herself (from the marriage tie) † (2 : 229). The general ground of divorce in the Quran, therefore, is hopeless failure of one or both parties to discharge their marital duties and to consort with each other in kindness, peace and compassion. Long absence of husband without any information, long imprisonment, refusal to provide for wife, impotence etc. are some of the grounds on which wife can ask for divorce. Either party may take steps to divorce in case of chronicle disease, insanity, deceptive misrepresentation during marriage contract, desertion etc. A Muslim male is allowed three chances, that is to say, acts of divorce on three different occasions provided that each divorce is pronounced during the time when the wife is in the period of purit y. A husband may divorce his wife once and let the Iddat (the period of waiting after divorce) pass. During the waiting period the two have the option of being reconciled. If however the waiting period passes without reconciliation, they stand fully divorced. If after the first divorce the husband is reconciled with his wife but the hostility and conflict begins all over again, he may divorce her a second time in the same manner as stated above. In this case also he can return to her during the Iddat (or waiting period). If however, after second reconciliation, he divorces the wife the third time, he can not take back the wife during the Iddat. She is totally prohibited for him. The lady, thereafter can marry any person she likes according to her choice. The wife can divorce her husband if this condition is stipulated in the marriage contract. This kind of divorce is called ‘Delegated Divorce’ (Talaq Taffiz). Marriage can also be dissolved through mutual consent. This is called Khula in the technical language of Islamic law. Marriage can also be dissolved by judicial process through the court on complaint of the wife on the grounds explained before. One of the consequences of the divorce is the commencement of waiting period for the wife. This usually lasts three months. If there is a pregnancy, it lasts as long as pregnancy lasts. The waiting period is basically a term of probation during which reconciliation can be attempted. It is also required to establish whether the wife has conceived. It also allows time for planning the future. Maintenance of wife during the waiting period is on husband. The wife can not be expelled from her place of residence and he can not in any way harass her. These will constitute moral as well as criminal offence. In case of divorce, the young children remain in the custody of their divorced mother. However, the father has to provide the cost of maintenance of young children though they remain under the custody of mother. Islamic law of divorce is based on practical considerations. The process of separation is basically a matter of husband and wife. However; when conflict arises, attempts should be made for reconciliation. It has not made judicial process obligatory in divorce for reasons explained earlier. The intervention of court has nowhere reduced the number of divorce. Judicial process in Islam is the last resort in so far as divorce is concerned. Islamic law on divorce if followed in true spirit will enhance the dignity of man and woman, reduce conflict and ensure justice. The Holy Qur’an explicitly prohibits the divorcing husbands from taking back their marriage gifts no matter how expensive or valuable these gifts might be In the case of the wife choosing to end the marriage, she has to return the marriage gifts or money to her husband. Returning the marriage gifts in this case is a fair compensation for the husband who is keen to keep his wife while she chooses to leave him. But the majority of ulamma’ have agreed that to act unfairly against the husband is not allowed and the marriage cannot be annulled by such way. The Holy Qur’an has instructed Muslim men not to take back any of the gifts they have given to their wives except in the case of the wife choosing to dissolve the marriage. Also, a woman came to the Prophet Muhammad seeking the dissolution of her marriage, she told the Prophet that she did not have any complaints against her husband’s character or manners. Her only problem was that she honestly did not like h im to the extent of not being able to live with him any longer. The Prophet asked her: â€Å"Would you give him his garden (the marriage gift he had given her) back?† she said: â€Å"Yes†. The Prophet then instructed the man to take back his garden and accept the dissolution of the marriage. The children usually stay with their mother unless she is shown to be incapable or unsuitable but she loses the right of custody of her children if she remarries. Marriage The most important ingredients in a Muslim marriage are shared values and beliefs, so that even if a couple come from different cultures and backgrounds they possess the same basic world view, attitudes and habits which will bind them together. Many Muslims seem to marry their cousins, Islam neither encourages nor refuses this practise. The prophet’s seventh wife, Zaimab bint Jahsh, was his cousin, but he only married her when she was 39 after his foster son Zaid divorced her. Cousin marriages inbreeds genetic disorders, and makes it very hard for a couple to divorce from a failed marriage if other close relatives will be offended. Muslim boys may marry Christians and Jews, but Muslim girls are not permitted to marry non- Muslims because in Islam the children have to take the religion of the father, and so w ould become non-Muslims. The prohet said : ‘A woman should only be married to a person who is good enough for her or compatible to her.’ The prophet permitted marriages between people of vastly different social status and financial backgrounds, knowing it was not these factors which made for compatibility, but what they were like in their hearts. Do not marry only for a person’s looks, their beauty might become the cause of moral decline. Do not marry for wealth, since this may become the cause of disobedience. Marry rather on the grounds of religious devotion. ( Haddith) Islam sees marriage as the only moral and legal status for a sexual relationship as it provides in public for the security and well being of man and woman. The ceremony itself is extremely simple and takes the form of a basic contract set in a social gathering. It can take place anywhere usually in a home in Muslim countries but in Britain it is most likely to be in a mosque. The imam does not need to be present and there is no fixed formula but it must be clear that both man and woman agree to the marriage and there may be readings from the Qur’an on the theme of married life. The contract- Aqd nikah- is written, as well as spoken, and bride and groom sign three copies. They keep one each and, in a Muslim country, the third is kept by officials. The Qur’an requires that the groom give the wife mahr- a sum of money or property or some other gift of value. It remains hers, whatever happens, and they agree between them what it is to be and when it is to be given. Jihad Arabic for â€Å"exerting one’s utmost efforts to a determined objective†, such objective normally being the struggle against anything that is not good. Two kinds of jihad traditionally exist for mainstream Muslims: the â€Å"greater† (al-jihad al-akbar) and the â€Å"lesser† ( al-jihad al-asghar). The greater jihad is also known as jihad al-nafs, and is understood as an individual’s inner, spiritual struggle against vice, passion, and ignorance. The lesser jihad is defined as meaning â€Å"holy war† against infidel (non-Muslim) lands and subjects. It has both legal and doctrinal significance in that it is prescribed by the Koran and mainstream Muslim hadiths (recorded sayings and actions ascribed to the Prophet Muhammad and accorded a status on a par with revelation). â€Å"Holy war† is the sole form of war that is theoretically permissable in mainstream Islam. Muslim law has traditionally divided up the world into dar al-Islam (abode of Islam) and dar al- harb (abode of war, that is, of non-Muslim rule). As Islam is the last, most superior and universal of man’s divinely ordained religions, it is believed that the entire world must ultimately surrender to its rule and law, if not its faith. Until that time, a jihad against non-Muslim neighbours and neighbouring lands is the duty of all adult, male, and able-bodied Muslims. According to this traditional view, Muslims who die in jihad automatically become martyrs of the faith and are awarded a special place in Paradise. According to the law-books, two kinds of non-Muslim enemies exist, kafir (pagans) and ahl al- kitab (people of the book). The term â€Å"people of the book† originally meant only Jews and Christians, but later on it included other groups such as followers of Zoroastrianism. â€Å"People of the book† need only submit to Muslim political authority to avoid or end jihad and may keep their original faith: their status, defined as dhimmi (a â€Å"protected† non-Muslim), is inferior to that of a Muslim and they must pay the prescribed â€Å"jizya† (poll tax). As for pagans, that is, those whom Muslims do not recognize as a â€Å"people of the book†, such as Buddhists and Hindus, they must either convert to Islam or suffer execution. This drastic alternative, however, was rarely enforced in practice. There can be no going back for a convert to Islam-be that person a dhimmi or pagan-since it is a capital offence to abandon Islam, even for a former religion with a recognized revelation. However, ways of avoiding the strict enforcement of the law were often found. Jihad can also be defensive, that is, for the purpose of protecting Muslim lands from non-Muslim incursions such as, for example, the crusades of the Christians in the Holy Land during the Middle Ages or the Spanish Reconquista. Some modern Muslim scholars have stressed the defensive aspect of jihad above others. In contrast to the Sunnis, some Muslim groups like the Imami and Bohora-Ismaili Shiites are forbidden from participating in offensive jihad. This is because for both sects the only person legitimately capable of conducting an offensive jihad is their Imam, and he is presently in occultation (that is, in hiding and incommunicado until the end of time). The two sects, however, are permitted participation in defensive jihad. I have been asked to evaluate the following statement ‘The Qur’an would be more useful to everyone if it were translated into modern English. Whether the Qur’an may be translated from its original Arabic into another language, and, if so, under what circumstances a translation may be used, has also been a matter of dispute. Nevertheless, it has been translated by Muslims and non-Muslims into a variety of languages. Today there are many versions available in English and the other major languages of the world. Although it can now be read in at least 40 languages, all translations lose part of the inspiration and meaning, and are not treated with the same respect as the original. Since the Qur’an is believed to be from Allah, every word, every letter, is sacred to muslims. It is therefore considered very important to keep the Qur’an in the language in which it was first spoken i.e. Arabic. Muslims were taught to recite it, and it must still be learnt in Arabic. As Islam spread from Arabia, its language was adopted by a number of Islamic countries, and is still spoken in these countries today. Muslims in these countries should find the Qur’an quite easy to read, even though the style of modern Arabic has naturally changed since Muhammad’s time. In other countries, muslims need to learn enough Arabic to take part in their worship and to read the Qur’an. You can find translations of the Qur’an for people who do not know Arabic, or copies with both Arabic and another language for those who do not have Arabic as their first language, but muslims do not accept these translations as proper Qur’ans. The main argument used to defend the Divine authorship of the Qur’an is the incomparable quality of writing. Much of it is composed in rhyming Arabic and the language is particularly beautiful and graceful. The surahs were given in Arabic and, since it would be a sin to alter the word of Allah, Arabic remains the sacred language of Islam. Non- Arabic speaking muslims can use translations but the Qur’an is so important to them that many learn Arabic just so they can read it in its original form. Muslims and non-believers alike agree the full power and beauty of its writing can only be appreciated in the original. But for muslims it goes further than that. Translations can only be interpretations which cannot truly say what is said in Arabic. The combination of the words and rhythms in the original language- the way the Qur’an sounds when recited- is also an important part of its power. Muslims think of the Qur’an as a complete philosophy, a comprehensive description of the universe and the entirety of the law by which people must live. The longer and later Medina surahs stress Allah’s merciful nature more fully, with extensive friendly practical advice on personal and family matters. The Qur’an is also the focus of Islamic art. Many individuals copies of the Book are major works of art in their own right – with sublime Arabic calligraphy on superb hand-made paper, and high quality decorative leather and metal work. Figurative art is forbidden by classical Islam, especially the creation of images of Allah and the Prophets, and the astonishingly fine decorative art found in many mosques is largely based on Arabic calligraphy, woven into patterns repeating passages from the Book. Even the most sceptical non-believer, Muslims insist, is forced to admit that the Qur’an is a book of immense beauty and importance – not least because it has now almost certain become the most widely read and memorised book in the world. The preface to one of the most widely available Qur’an in English, the Tahrike Tarsile translation, puts it like this: ‘The Qur’an’s miracle lies in its ability to offer at least something to non-believers and everything to believers’. Learning large parts of the the Qur’an by heart is an important part of Muslim religious devotion and children start memorising it at an early age. In many Muslim countries learning the Qur’an by heart forms the basic curriculum of primary school education. Muslims who memorise its contents in their entirety are given the honourable title of al-hafiz.