Ritalin Essays - Methylphenidate, , Term Papers

Ritalin Ritalin The Babysitter of the 90's 07/03/2000 Prepared for Nursing 2116 by Tracey Hardin Ritalin (Methylphenidate) is a mild CNS stimulant. In medicine, Ritalin's primary use is treatment of Attention Deficit /Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD). The mode of action in humans is not completely understood, but Ritalin presumably activates the arousal system of the brain stem and the cortex to produce its stimulant effect. Recently, the frequency of diagnosis for ADHD has increased dramatically. More children and an increasing number of adults are being diagnosed with ADHD. According to the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) (Bailey 1995), prescriptions for Ritalin have increased more than 600% in the past five years. Ritalin has a long history of controversy regarding side effects and potential for abuse, however it greatly benefits those with ADHD. Ritalin (Methylphenidate) is manufactured by CIBA-Geigy Corporation. It is supplied in 5 mg., 10 mg., and 20 mg. tablets, and in a sustained release form, Ritalin SR, in 20 mg. tablets. It is readily water soluble and is intended for oral use. It is a Schedule II Controlled Substance under both the Federal and Vermont Controlled Substance Acts. Ritalin is primarily used in the treatment of Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) (Bailey 1995). ADHD is a condition most likely based in an inefficiency and inadequacy of Dopamine and Norepinephrine hormone availability, typically occurring when a person with ADHD tries to concentrate. Ritalin improves the efficiency of the hormones Dopamine and Norepinephrine, increasing the resources for memory, focus, concentration and attention (Clark 1996). Ritalin has been used for more than 30 years to treat ADHD. Nervousness and insomnia are the most common adverse reactions reported, but are usually controlled by reducing dosage or omitting the afternoon or evening dose. Decreased appetite is also common but usually transient (Long 1996). According to Clark (1996), children, adolescents and adults diagnosed with ADHD usually report the following effects when successfully treated with Ritalin: Improved concentration Better focus Improved ability to complete their work Improved intensity of attention and longer attention span Reduced distractibility Reduced impulsivity Reduced restlessness and overactivity Improved patience More elaborate expressive vocabulary Better written expression and handwriting (especially in children) An improved sense of alertness Improved memory for visual as well as auditory stimuli Ritalin exhibits pharmacological activity similar to that of amphetamines. Ritalin's exact mechanism of action in the CNS is not fully understood, but the primary sites of activity appear to be in the cerebral cortex and the subcortical structures including the thalamus. Ritalin blocks the reuptake mechanism present in dopaminergic neurons. As a result, sympathomimetic activity in the central nervous system and in the peripheral nervous system increases. Ritalin-induced CNS stimulation produces a decreased sense of fatigue, an increase in motor activity and mental alertness, mild euphoria, and brighter spirits. In the PNS, the actions of Ritalin are minimal at therapeutic doses (Clinical Pharmacology Online 1997). Ritalin is the quickest of all oral ADHD stimulant medications in onset of action: it starts to achieve benefit in 20 - 30 minutes after administration, and is most effective during the upward slope' and peak serum levels. Ritalin's effect is brief: Most people experience 2-3 hours of benefit, but after 3 hours, benefits drop off rapidly. Some individuals, especially children, may obtain 4 or even 5 hours of positive effect (Clark 1996). Recently, there has been a dramatic upsurge of interest in using stimulants (mainly Ritalin) for children and adults for the increasingly popular diagnosis of ADHD. According to Persky (1996), the high frequency of the diagnosis of ADHD is a uniquely American phenomenon. Children and adults are now under greater pressure to perform and to do well academically or in the workplace. The chilling message in school and at work is Perform or Else. Because of this high intensity atmosphere, the use of Ritalin has become attractive. This has resulted in an acute epidemic of ADHD and the treatment of choice is Ritalin (Persky 1996). For example, after education reforms spearheaded by Ross Perot in Texas in 1984, Ritalin use in the state doubled. One Texas mother says she is being hounded by teachers to put her two boys on Ritalin against their psychologist's advice. Another mother says she had to ask a school board member to intervene when teachers at her child's school also pressed for

Happy Birthday in Latin and Roman Birthday Observances

Happy Birthday in Latin and Roman Birthday Observances Although we know Romans celebrated birthdays, we dont know if they wished one another the exact phrase Happy Birthday! But that doesnt mean we cant  use the Latin language  to wish someone a  happy birthday. The following seems to be the best way to express happy birthday in Latin. Felix sit natalis dies! Using the accusative case, specifically the accusative of exclamation,  felix  sit natalis  dies  is one way to say happy birthday. Similarly, you could also say  felicem diem natalem. Habeas felicitatem  in die natus es! Habeas felicitatem in die natus es  is another possibility. The phrase roughly translates to on happiness to love you.   Natalis laetus! A third way to wish happy birthday is  Natalis laetus mihi!  if you want to say happy birthday to me. Or,  Natalis laetus tibi!  if  you want to say happy birthday to you. Celebrating in Ancient Rome The ancient Romans observed different types of birthday celebrations or dies natales in Latin. Privately, Roman men and women marked their own birthdays and the births of family members and friends with gift-giving and banquets. Fathers gave presents to their children, brothers gave presents to sisters,  and slaves gave presents to their masters children. One custom was to celebrate not on the specific date an individual was born but rather on the first of the month (calends) in which the individual was born, or the first of the next month. Gifts given on birthdays include jewelry; the poet Juvenal mentions parasols and amber as gifts, and Martial suggests togas and military clothing would be appropriate. Birthday feasts might have entertainment  furnished by dancers and singers. Wine, flowers, incense, and cakes were part of such celebrations. The most important feature of Roman personal birthday celebrations was a sacrifice to the genius of the housefather and the juno of the housemother. The genius and juno were clan symbols, representing a persons patron saint or guardian angel, who guided the individual throughout life. Genii was a sort of middle power or intermediary between men and gods, and it was important that votive offerings be given to the genius each year in hopes that the protection would continue. Public Celebrations People also held similar celebrations for the birthdays of close friends and patrons. There is a wide variety of elegies, poems, and inscriptions commemorating such events. For example, in 238 CE, the grammarian Censorinus wrote De Die Natali as a birthday gift for his patron, Quintus Caerellius. In it he stated,   But while other men honor only their own birthdays, yet I am bound every year by a double duty as regards this religious observance; for since it is from you and your friendship that I receive esteem, position, honor, and assistance, and in fact all the rewards of life, I consider it a sin if I celebrate your day, which brought you forth into this world for me, any less carefully than my own. For my own birthday gave me life, but yours has brought me the enjoyment and the rewards of life. Emperors, Cults, Temples, and Cities The word natali also refers to anniversary celebrations of the founding of temples, cities, and cults. Beginning with the Principate, Romans also celebrated the birthdays of past and present emperors, and members of the imperial family, as well as their ascension days, marked as natales imperii. People would also combine celebrations: a banquet could mark the dedication of an associations banqueting hall, commemorating an important occasion in the life of the association.  The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum includes an inscription from a woman who donated 200 sesterces so that a local association would hold a banquet on her sons birthday. Sources Argetsinger, Kathryn. Birthday Rituals: Friends and Patrons in Roman Poetry and Cult. Classical Antiquity 11.2 (1992): 175–93. Print. Ascough, Richard S. Forms of Commensality in Greco-Roman Associations. The Classical World 102.1 (2008): 33–45. Print. Bowerman, Helen C. The Birthday as a Commonplace of Roman Elegy. The Classical Journal 12.5 (1917): 310–18. Print. Lucas, Hans. Martials Kalendae Nataliciae. The Classical Quarterly 32.1 (1938): 5–6. Print.

Joint Venture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Joint Venture - Essay Example e strategic coalition focused on the design, development as well as management of extravagance non-gaming hotels, residential offerings and resorts under the Hakkasan, Bellagio, MGM Grand, and Skylofts brands in main international gateway cities along with prime resort destinations all over the globe. The entire hotel together with resort projects contributed to the joint venture, counting MGM projects in the Americas, Asia, the Middle East, and Hakkasan projects in Dubai and Abu Dhabi. Hakkasan and MGM combined their efforts and resources; they have a challenge of bringing all of the essential elements of their organizations together. The amount of negotiating and planning needed to bring this about is reasonably significant. This integration planning is strongly related to cultural issues since it requires the two to determine what corporate culture is to look like. Another challenge is the differences between the two companies. Differences in view or management style cause partners to fail to agree. This can come about for other reasons too. Differences in personality may lead to partners to part ways even though it is mutually advantageous to unite their

Leadership & Change Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Leadership & Change - Coursework Example Despite such, the effectiveness of a change process relies on the management techniques employed in an organization with the leadership skills of the managers remaining integral in the process as the discussion below shows. Transformational model of leadership and theory of change mandates the managers with overseeing the change process thus with the responsibility of ensuring the success of the change process (Mullins, 2010: 451). The theory requires managers to boost the morale of the employees thereby introducing the changes systematically in a manner that the employees embrace them. Employee motivation is a basic mandate of human resource management. It influences the employees’ response to change. Firstly, the leader must influence the employees. This requires the leader to inspire his employees in order to influence them easily. Additionally, the leader should use employ intellectual stimulation when carrying out the change process (Sperry, 2013: 98). The manager can create new positions thus promote productive employees. Remuneration is yet another basic factor of motivation, in case the change promises to increase profitability, and the manager can, therefore, increase the pay of the emp loyees in order to encourage them to adopt the change. Change management further requires the managers to understand their employees. As explained earlier, some employees would adopt change easily while others are inherently resistant to change. By understanding the employees, the management can select the best management technique to employ in order to encourage productivity and acceptance of the changes. Theory X, theory Y and theory Z explain the various traits of employees in an organization. Theory X asserts that employees are inherently lazy and dislike work. As such, the employees require intense supervision without which they remain unproductive. Theory X, on the other hand, argues that employees love their work and are naturally productive. The two

Mlb monopoly market structure Essay Example for Free

Mlb monopoly market structure Essay Major League Baseball (â€Å"MLB†) is the only American Industry that is a self-regulating monopoly exempt from anti-trust law. In 1922, there was the U. S. Supreme Court Case of Federal Baseball Club v. National League and the judge unanimously decided that the Sherman Antitrust Act was not applicable to MLB and could therefore regulate as a monopoly. Furthermore, this decision was later reaffirmed in 1952 and 1972 in two different U. S. Supreme Court cases. This antitrust exemption has given increased monopolistic power to the MLB organization. MLB Monopolistic Characteristics Monopoly is defined as â€Å"A market structure in which there is only a single seller of a good, service, or resource. In antitrust law, a dominant firm that accounts for a very high percentage of total sales within a particular market. † The following characteristics that label the MLB as a Monopoly are the following: (a) one unique firm/product (i. e. , no other industry like the MLB and it’s impossible to duplicate); (b) absence of competition (i. e. , granted from anti-trust laws); (c) profit maximization (i. e. , attendance increasing even as prices increasing); (d). â€Å"Price Makers† (i. e. , control price and possible price discrimination); and (e) impenetrable barriers of entry into market (i. e. , highly unlikely to enter into industry). MLB Controlling Powers Major League Baseball and specifically their team owners can raise ticket and concession prices whenever they want to increase profits. For example, less desirable stadium seats are much lower in price than â€Å"good† seats. The MLB also sets prices based on team location. For example, I know first-hand that prices for the New York Yankees are much higher than those for the Chicago White Sox. In addition to controlling prices, MLB also controls output. They set the season schedule at 162 games with half of those being home games. Since there are limited amounts of homes games owners know that they can keep increasing prices for tickets and concession stands. Conclusion Major League Baseball’s ability to control prices, set extreme difficulty on barriers of entry and to eliminate competition definitely identifies them as a Monopoly market structure. Furthermore their use of pricing strategies, which include setting ticket prices according to the view of the field, discount group pricing for lower attended weekday games and games against lesser teams, discounts for seniors/students/military, increased prices for suites and luxury boxes, and parking priced depending on location to stadium (i. e. , closer parking to stadium is more expensive). However, even with all of these increasing prices and price controls the MLB continues to set attendance records each and every year. I personally love Major League Baseball and I’m willing to pay any prices when I want to go to the ballpark and watch a game. Bibliography/References Haupert, Michael, edit by Robert Whaples. (2007, December 3). The Economic History of Major League Baseball. Retrieved September 26,2011, from EH. Net Encyclopedia Web site: http://eh. net/encyclopedia/article/haupert. mlb McConnell, Campbell R. Economics, 19th Edition. McGraw-Hill Learning Solutions, 2012. p. G-18.

Effect of Need Based Grand Eligibility on College Attainment

Effect of Need Based Grand Eligibility on College Attainment The education system in the United State is considered as the best in the world , but this status is started to fall. According to the OECD report(2012) it has been seen that the bachelors degree attainment rate rise substantially in other countries over the last couple of decades, but the trends in the US are move slightly. Educational researchers such as Turner(2004),Bound, Lovenheim Turner( 2007) showed that students who admitted in bachelor degree program take more time to complete it. The national educational statistics also indicate a considerable variation in graduation time at the state level. Statistics from the 2009 census indicate that roughly 17 percent of those born in the lowest-ranked state of Southeast of US (age 25 and older) had attained a bachelor’s degree which is below the national rate of 24 percent, and compared to the U.S. average from the late 1970s(Goal 2025,2014). According to Bailey and Dynarski ( 2011) only 18 percent of college entrant complete a bachelor degree within four years and 36 percent within six years. In the past, educators and researchers tried to find out the reasons why so many college entrants fail to complete a degree, or fail to complete on time. Previous researchers such as Clayton(2009) argued that students financial constraints and academic preparation and motivation are correlated with time to complete a degree. Baum, Ma, Payea (2010) showed that only 55 percent students of low income quintile background who graduated high school in 2008enrolled in college compared with 80 percent of students in the highest income quintile. Ellwood Kane(2000) proved that low-income students have a lower probability of enrollment than do more affluent students when controlling for academic achievement. The gaps in college degree attainment by socioeconomic status are even more concerned (Haveman Smeeding, 2006). These concerns may explain the increasing popularity of programs offering large financial incentives for co llege achievement. The United States government currently provides more than $132 billion per year need based financial assistantships to mitigate the effect of rising college costs on the postsecondary decisions of students from low-income families (Baum and Payea 2011).The largest of these grants is the federal Pell Grant, a need-based grant awarded to low- and moderate-income students pursuing a college education at an accredited institution. Researchers always wanted to know whether these grants lead to improvements in students’ college outcomes. A vast majority of research examined the causal effect of need-based grants on college access. However, a very little research has examined the effect of need-based grants on whether students persistent, accumulate more college credits, and ultimately complete a degree. The proposed study will investigate the effects of need-based grant eligibility on college attainment. Specifically, we will focus on the impact of eligibility fo r the need-based Mississippi Tuition Assistant Grant(MTAG) on whether students enter, remain enrolled in, and graduate from college. The Mississippi Postsecondary Education Financial Assistance Board(MPEFAB) determined eligibility for the MTAG using the federal need based financial analysis calculation. According to that calculation freshman and sophomore students will get not more than $ 500 per academic year and in case of junior and senior students, the award shall not exceed $ 1000 per academic year. According to the MPEFAB, students who get less than the full Federal Pell Grant award shall receive an MTAG award in an amount equal to the difference between the maximum Federal Pell Grant award amount and the award amount of the Federal Pell Grant for which the student is eligible based upon the student’s EFC as determined by the FAFSA. A student may receive MTAG in addition to the Mississippi Eminent Scholars Grant (MESG), unless the institution determines that receipt of both awards will cause the student’s financial aid package to exceed the institution’s established cost of attendance for the student. Problem Statement Previous researches related to financial aid highlighted the effect of financial aid on college attendance and college persistence, even though this two likely represent very different sets of decisions for individuals. Researchers always wanted to know whether these grants lead to improvements in students’ college outcomes. A vast majority of research examined the causal effect of need-based grants on college access. For instance, Deming Dynarski (2009 ) showed that for each additional $1,000 need-based grant eligibility can have a strong and positive effect on students enrollment in college, with the estimated probability of enrollment increasing by between 3 to 4 percentage on average. Several researchers such as Bruce and Carruthers(2011),Dynarksi(2008), Scott-Clayton(2011) examined the long-term effect of merit-based scholarships on whether students earn a degree. Recently, Bettinger, et al. (2012) suggested that helping students to apply for federal aid like the Pell Gr ant increase college persistence. However, a very little research has examined the effect of need-based grants on whether students persistent, accumulate more college credits, and ultimately complete a degree. Research Question The proposed study will investigate the effects of need-based grant eligibility on college attainment. Specifically, we will focus on the impact of eligibility for the need-based Tennessee Student Assistance Award Program (TSAA)on whether students enter, remain enrolled in, and graduate from college. As such, we will contribute to the literature by focusing on the longer-term effects of need-based financial aid. The proposed study will also contributes to the scant literature on the effects of financial aid, particularly need-based aid, on college persistence and degree completion. Additionally, the proposed study will examine the effects of increasing the size other need-based financial aid for example, the Pell Grant on college outcome as well as interaction between need based financial aid and merit based financial aid. A regression -discontinuity design will be used based on the information that determined whether students were eligible for more, or less, need-based grant aid to analyze the causal effect of TSAA eligibility on whether students entered, persisted in, and completed college level degree program. Literature Review Previous research shows that financial aid may influence the college-going decisions of low income students. According to Becker(1964), if the perceived present discounted value (PDV) of the benefits of higher education exceeds the PDV of the costs of going to college the students pursue a college education. Thus, government and other aid granting agencies provide financial aid to reduce the PDV of the cost of going to college. Previous research related to financial aid support this theory. Dynarski (2003) and Deming and Dynarski( 2009) showed that reduction in financial aid by $ 1000 led to roughly 4 % reduction in college enrollment. The research literature suggests that financial aid can impact initial college enrollment positively, while economic theory is reluctant about the effect of financial aid on success of college student. Is is well proved that financial aid have an indirect positive effect on academic success for students who have already admitted in college. In recent y ears, authors such as Dynarski (2008) analyzed the effect of government sponsored merit based scholarship programs on students long term success. Dynarski(2008) showed that the introduction of state merit scholarships in Arkansas and Georgia increase degree completion rate in each state. While,Scott-Clayton (2011) found that students who got West Virginia PROMISE scholarship were 6.7 percentage more likely to earn a bachelor’s degree within four years than other students. Similarly, Bruce and Carruthers (2011) exploited a cut-off in the ACT score that determines eligibility for Tennessee’s HOPE merit scholarship to examine the effect of the grant on students’ longer-term college attainment. In contrast to Dynarski (2008) and Scott-Clayton (2011), the authors found little evidence that Tennessee HOPE had a positive impact on whether students earned a degree.

Celebrity Endorser Influence Essay

Celebrity Endorser Influence on Attitude Toward Advertisements and Brands Bahram Ranjbarian Associate Professor of management, Department of Management The University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran E-mail: Bahram1 r@yahoo.com Zahra Shekarchizade Master Student of Business Management, Department of Management University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran E-mail: Shekarchi_2020@yahoo.com Zahra Momeni Master Student of Business Management, Department of Management University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran E-mail: za.momeni@yahoo.com Abstract Purpose- This study aims to analyze the celebrity endorser influence on attitude toward advertisements and brands. Design/methodology/approach – A theoretical model is developed and tested with a sample of 193 students in University of Isfahan in 2009. Structural equation modeling was used with LISREL 8.50 and the maximum likelihood (ML) method. Findings – The findings show that attitude toward celebrity endorser can influence on attitude toward brand directly or indirectly. In indirectly approach, attitude toward advertisement is as a mediator between attitude toward celebrity endorser and attitude toward brand. On the other hand, attitude toward celebrity endorser has not significant effect on purchase intention. Originality/value – This paper provides a model connecting attitude toward celebrity endorser, attitude toward advertisement and attitude toward brand that has been examined and validated using a sample of students in University of Isfahan. Paper type- Research paper Keywords: Endorsement, Celebrities, Brand, Attitude, Advertisement Introduction Today one of the most prevalent forms of retail advertising is through using of celebrity endorsement (White et al, 2007). In fact celebrity endorsers are being used in about 25 percent of all television advertisements in order to promote brands (Erdogan et al, 2001).These endorsers are being paid by about 10 percent of advertiser’s budgets (Agrawal and Kamakura, 1995). Marketers invest huge amounts of money in contracts with celebrity endorsers each year, since they believe that celebrities affect the process of selling of their brands or products (Katyal, 2007). A celebrity endorser is a wellknown person (e.g., actors, sports figures and artists) because of his successes in a special field other than the endorsed product class (James, 2004). Celebrity endorsers are used by firms who want to 399 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 13, Number 3 (2010) support a product or service (Amos et al, 2008). Since presence of celebrity endorsers affects purchase decisions of consumers positively, producers and retailers have always preferred to use celebrity endorsements in order to sell their products (Stafford et al, 2003; Erdogan, 1999; Kamins, 1990). Kaikati (1987) believes that using of celebrities in advertisements could have many benefits and advantages including: 1) facilitating of brand identification 2) changing or impressing the negative attitude towards a brand 3) repositioning an existing brand 4) global marketing or positioning of a brand or product 5) affecting purchase intentions of consumers. Although using of celebrity endorsers as brand messengers is impressive, but it could have some risks. For instance, celebrities who are known to be guilty because of negative events (e.g., accident) may have harmful effects on the products that they endorse (Lou ie and Obermiller, 2002). Studies reveal that using of attractive celebrity causes to increase attitude towards advertisements. Such attitude towards advertisements is defined as â€Å"mental states which are used by individuals to organize the way they perceive their environment and control the way they respond to it† (Haghirian, 2004). There is a considerable correlation between desirable attitudes with regard to advertising and rating of certain advertisements by respondents as being likeable, irritating, delightful, etc (Bauer and Greyser, 1968). Celebrity endorsers enhance awareness of a company’s advertising, create positive feelings towards brands and are perceived by consumers as more amusing (Solomon, 2002). Thus using of a celebrity in advertising causes to influence brand attitude and purchase intentions of consumers in a positive way. Celebrity endorsement has a strong effect on consumers’ memory and learning approach too. Most consumers are not in a purchasing situation when they are encounter with message of the brand. Marketers use celebrity endorsement in order to help better storage of information in consumers’ minds which they can easily remember in purchasing situations (Schultz and Brens, 1995). However, there are many studies about celebrity endorser, but it seems that there are limited researches about the relationship between celebrity endorser and attitudes. The purpose of this study is to specify the impact of using celebrity endorsers in Iranian advertisements on attitudes of students in University of Isfahan toward those ads and brands. Literature Review Some properties such as likeability, expertise, trustworthiness and similarity cause a celebrity endorser to become a source of persuasive information and this creates a sense of certainty which has been revealed in many studies (Suranaa, 2008). Also physical attractiveness of the endorser is considerable in effectiveness of a message (Khatri, 2006). Acceptance of a message by a receiver could be influenced by celebrity endorsers as believable sources of information about a product or a firm (Amos et al, 2008). Using of celebrity endorsers to support products is explained by balance theory principles too. According to this theory, successful companies establish an emotional relation between the observer and endorser and a relation between endorser and brand too (Mowen, 2000). Before proceeding conceptual model, we describe the main constructs of this study. Celebrity Endorser McCracken (1998) has defined celebrity endorser as â€Å"any individual who enjoys public cognition and who uses this cognition on behalf of a consumer by appearing wit in an advertisement†. Moreover, celebrity is used as testimonial, endorsement, actor or spokesperson by the firm. Research has demonstrated that celebrity endorsement affects consumers’ feelings in general and it could affect the attitude of consumers towards the advertisement and brands too. This could result in enhancing of purchase intentions and as a result enhancing of sales. Some properties like credibility, physical attractiveness and likeability of celebrity endorser influence the ability of one person to impact other person (Amos et al, 2008). Source credibility is referred to identifying of communicator’s positive properties which influences acceptance of a message by the receiver (Ohanian, 1990). This consists of two main dimensions of expertise and 400 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 13, Number 3 (2010) trustworthiness. Source expertise refers to the degree which a communicator is perceived to be a source of valid assertion (Roozen, 2008). Source trustworthiness refers to faithfulness and reliability of the spokesperson (Khatri, 2006). Source attractiveness is the personality, likeability and similarity of endorsers to the receiver, thus to the perceived social values of the source (Solomon, 2002). Physical attractiveness of the source include being attractive, beautiful, elegant and charming. According to the studies in this ground, expertise dimension is more significant than physical attractiveness for matching of a brand with a suitable endorser (Brian and Michael, 1998). Likeability is referred to the positive or negative feelings that consumers have towards a source of information. We can define likeability as affection for the source because of its physical appearance and behavior (Erdogan, 1999). Though some research results reveal effectiveness of celebrities as endorsers (Freiden, 1984), but other researches suggest that celebrity endorsement may have different degrees of effectiveness depending on other factors like the â€Å"fit† between the celebrity and the advertised product (Till and Shimp, 1998). Celebrity Endorsers’ Effect on Aad and Ao Marketers are especially interested in consumers’ attitudes towards advertisements and brands. Essentially, attitudes are our predispositions with regard to things. An attitude shows whether we like something or not. Attitudes have three basic components: affective, cognitive and behavioral. Affective is related to our liking or feelings about an object. Cognitive is referred to beliefs about an object and behavioral component regards actions we take about that object (Severin and Tankard, 2001). Attitude towards advertisement is defined as â€Å"a learned tendency to respond in a consistently desirable or undes irable approach toward advertising in general† (Haghirian, 2004). On the other side, attitude towards the advertisement (Aad) is whether the consumer likes an advertisement (Ad) or hates it. Determinants of Aad consist of attitude towards the advertiser, assessment of the Ad execution itself, the mood evoked by Ad, and the extent to which the Ad affect viewer’s encouragement. Assessment of brands could be influenced by attitudes towards Ads. Of course what causes an advertisement to be impressive will change noticeably cross-culturally (Arnold et al, 2004). In performed studies, Aad is focused on as a mediator of advertiser’s effects on brand attitudes and purchase intentions (Suhere and Ispir, 2009). In recent studies, this issue has been proved that using of celebrity endorsement has a positive impact on attitudes of the consumer towards products and brands with which they are associated brand (Seno and Lukas, 2005). Agarwal and Malhotra (2005) have defined brand attitude as consumers’ general evaluative judgment of a brand based on brand beliefs. Such beliefs concern product-related attributes, like practical and experimental benefits. A successful endorser is able to enhance intentions and preferences towards brands directly or indirectly. An endorser who has major source factors of credibility (like expertise, trustworthiness and effectiveness) is able to impress purchase intentions of the consumer considerably (Liu et al, 2007). Information from a credible source can impress ideas, attitudes and behavior through a process called internalization (Belch and Belch, 1993). Internalization occurs when the receiver is motivated to have an issue. The receiver learns and accepts the idea of the credible spokesperson, since he supposes that information of this person represents an accurate position on the issue. Therefore, if such spokesperson who is known to be an expert endorses a product, consumers will more probably have a desirable idea about that advertisement and brand and they will consider it in their shopping list the next time they go shopping. Researchers have used the identification process of social influence in order to explain the effectiveness of celebrity endorsers (Basil, 1996). This theory suggests that if an individual identifies with another individual, then he is more likely to accept an attitude or behavior of that individual or a group. The internalization process of social influence is occurred â€Å"when an individual accepts influence because the induced behavior is congruent with his value system†. An individual accepts the influence, since it provides a solution to a problem (Daneshvary and Schwer, 2000). In the elaboration likelihood model (ELM), individual’s level of motivation to process central message arguments is represented which is one of its key factors that affects the relative impact of 401 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 13, Number 3 (2010) central and peripheral processing (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986). When applied to an adverting context, ELM suggests that consumers’ motivation to centrally process brand-relevant aspects of an advertisement is enhanced, the impact of central processing on brand attitudes should be enhanced, the effect of peripheral processing on brand attitudes should be reduced and the effect of brand attitudes on purchase intentions should be enhanced (Lafferty and Goldsmith, 1999). In this theoretical model, the endorser serves as cue just during peripheral processing. Therefore, the effect of the endorser should be reduced while central processing is enhanced. Mackenzie and Lutz (1989) have stated that advertiser credibility is a central processing cue more than any other thing. Credibility of the source is considered important in influence acceptance. A consumer will accept the accurate influence (information) and apply it if there the source is perceived to be credible. It is accepted because it is â€Å"demand† by ones own values. Therefore, a product’s endorsement by a credible source may impress purchase behavior (Danwshvary and Schwer, 2000). As a result, celebrity endorsement can increase the process of recalling and consume assessment of products (Khatri, 2006). On the other hand, celebrity endorsement has a severe effect on learning approach and memory. Researchers in the field of marketing and social psychology have studied the manner of impressing of purchase decision by celebrity endorsements. Various hypotheses have been proposed including having recall of the product by celebrity endorsement, celebrities have credibility on expertise that makes the product more desirable or increases perceptions of quality; the celebrity endorsers’ image is transferred to the product so that those who use the product are associated with the image. Experiments suggest that celebrity endorsement can increase recall and consume assessment of the products in certain situations (Clark and Horstman, 2003). Most of the times, making connection with the brand message is occurred when consumers are not in a purchasing situation. Marketers use celebrity endorsement so that information will be kept in consumers’ minds better and in the case of purchasing situation, they can easily retrieve it (Surana, 2008). A successful endorser strategy can enhance the level of consumers’ recalling towards product information, reinforces consumers’ recognition to endorsed brands, positively influences consumers’ attitude to low-involved products and even enhance consumers’ purchase intention and preference towards brands (Liu et al, 2007) Therefore, hypothesizes of the study are as follows. H1: Attitude toward ad is positively affected by attitude toward celebrity endorser. H2: Attitude toward brand is positively affected by attitude toward celebrity endorser H3: Attitude toward brand is positively affected by attitude toward advertisement. H4: Intention to buy is positively affected by attitude toward celebrity endorser Method Data Collection Information was obtained from randomly selected students from University of Isfahan through survey questionnaires during September- November 2009. University of Isfahan is one of the major universities in the fields of science, human science and engineering. A total sample of 193 participants was obtained. The sample was composed of 137 women (71 percent) and 56 men (21 percent). A cluster sampling procedure with age and degree as main control variables was applied. The age of the respondents ranged from 19 to 30 years, with a mean of 24. All questionnaires were self-administered by the participants without interference from researchers. Measures The study uses multi-item scales to measure the constructs in our model. All items in the questionnaire were measured on a five-point Likert-type scale anchored from â€Å"strongly disagree† (1) to â€Å"strongly agree† (5). Some of the measures were available in the literature, though most were adapted to suit this European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 13, Number 3 (2010) particular context. To measure attitude toward celebrity endorser we used ten items. Attitude toward advertisement and attitude toward brand were measured with six items and five items, respectively. In order to measure reliability of questions in the questionnaire, 30 questionnaires have been pre-tested through pilot studies. Then, amount of confidence coefficient has been calculated by method of Cronbach’s alpha for which 0.83 % is obtained. This number shows that the applied questionnaire enjoys confidentiality or in other words the necessary reliability. Results Measurement Model Measurement model Structural equation modeling with LISREL 8.54 and the maximum likelihood (ML) method was used to analyse the data.. LISREL is a structural equations modeling technique that traces structural relations in a set of data (Eriksson et al, 2004). Structural equation modelling was used because it allows to estimate multiple and interrelated dependence relationships and unobserved factors can be represented in these relationships. Additionally, measurement error in the estimation process is accounted for (Hair et al., 1998). The model is assessed with the comparative fit index (CFI), standardised root meanresidual (SRMR), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and Akaike’s (1987) information criterion (AIC). The measurement model provided a good fit to the data: (CFI = 0:98, SRMR=0.058, RMSEA = 0.015 and AIC =396.22). All values of CFI, SRMR, and RMSEA meet the standards suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999): 0.95 for CFI, 0.08 for SRMR, and 0.06 for RMSEA.There are no Guidelines for the AIC but lower values indicate better fit. The fit of the structural model is good and is reported in Table I. In the following we will test our hypotheses and consequently report the standardised path coefficients. As shown in Table I, three of hypotheses are empirically supported and one of them is not confirmed. The effect of attitude toward celebrity endorser on attitude toward advertisement is significant (standardised path coefficient = 0:49). This shows that the higher the attitude toward endorser, the more the attitude toward advertisement. Attitude toward celebrity endorser also have significant effect on attitude toward brand (standardised path coefficient= 0.24), but this effect is comparatively weaker than its effect on attitude toward advertisement. On the other hand, the effect of attitude toward advertisement on attitude toward brand is significant (standardised path coefficient = 0:56). This clearly shows that attitude toward advertisement has the highest standardized path coefficient and therefore has the strongest influence on attitude toward brand. The results show that the effects of attitude celebrity endorser on Purchase intention is not significant (standardised path coefficient = 0.11). This means that attitud toward celebrities, does not necessarily always translates into purchase intentions. Discussion The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship among attitude toward celebrity endorser and attitude toward advertisement and brand. Effects of a celebrity endorser on respondents’ assessments about advertisements and products endorsed by celebrities have been studied previously. There are some interesting findings for using of celebrity endorsers in Iranian advertisements. Attitude towards a celebrity endorser has a direct positive effect on attitude towards advertisement. Attitude towards advertisement has important effects on attitude towards brands, too and its effect is comparatively stronger than the effect of celebrity endorser. But the effect of attitude toward celebrity endorser on purchase intention is not considerable. Results of this study demonstrate that attitude towards celebrity endorser has an indirect effect on attitude towards brand. This result confirms outcomes of the previous research by Agarwal and Kamakura (1995), Till and Busler (1998), and W hite et al (2008). When there is a â€Å"fit† between the   European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 13, Number 3 (2010) endorser and the endorsed product, endorser’s image helps construct the image of the brand in consumers’ minds. In fact, using of an attractive endorser has a positive impact on consumer attitudes towards a brand, because attractive endorsers have a tendency to get more attention than less attractive ones. On the other hand, experience of celebrity’s negative information can have an undesirable effect on the endorsed product. Transfer of negative information between the celebrity endorser and the endorsed product could be facilitated through cognitive relational pathway. We have considered social position of artists because people have more positive attitude towards artists. So, they distribute attitude towards artists to attitude towards endorsed brand. The association between attitude towards celebrity endorser and attitude towards advertisement has been shown in numerous studies, as the relationship between sports celebrity endorsements and retail products’ adverting are reported (White et al, 2008) and sports celebrity endorsements are being used in advertisements to impress brand selection. It is recognized in one study that attitude towards advertisement is considered as an interagent that influences attitude towards brand (Suhere and Ispir, 2009). Results of our study reveal that attitude towards advertisement is as an interagent between attitude towards celebrity and attitude towards brand. In our opinion, Iranians are interested in artists and know them as credible sources. So, ads makers use artists as celebrity to impress viewers’ attitudes towards advertisement and thereupon attitude towards brand. According to previous studies about the effect of the celebrity endorser on purchase intentions, such as Kamins (1990), Ohanian (1991), Liu et al (2007), we expected that positive attitude towards celebrities impressed purchase intentions. But results of this study confirm research outcomes of O’Mahony and Meenaghan (1997). According to this study, attitude towards celebrities does not necessarily always interpret in to purchase intentions. It seems that Iranian’s consumer tendency for buying is influenced by other various items such as age, gender, income and education too. Limitation This study has some limitations. The primary limitation of the present research relates to generalizability. The sample was restricted to students in University of Isfahan and this limits our results to be generalized, too. Another relevant consideration is that numerous girl students in university of Isfahan are more than its boy students. Also, this study relied exclusively on questionnaires to assess influence attitude toward celebrity endorser on attitude toward advertisements and brands, whereas this relationships need to be more investigated. On the other hand, this paper could not estimate effect of attitude toward celebrity endorser on purchase intention. In addition, our results are relational and not causal; therefore, it can not be concluded from this study whether attitude toward advertisement and brand is only cause or result of attitude toward celebrity endorser. Conclusion In this study the goal was to indicate the influence of using celebrity endorsers in Iranian advertisements on attitudes of students in University of Isfahan toward those advertisements and brands. The result of this study showed that the positive and significant relationship between attitude toward celebrity endorser and attitude toward advertisements and brands. By analyzing the output resulting from testing hypotheses, it can be concluded that attitude toward celebrity endorser has directly or indirectly influence on attitude toward brand. Consequences suggested that attitude toward advertisement was as a mediator between attitude toward celebrity endorser and attitude toward brand. On the other hand, attitude toward celebrity endorser hadn’t significant influence on purchase intention. So, future researches should put more effort into making strong believable explanations for how celebrity endorsers are able to have significant influence on consumer intention for purchase. References [1] [2] Agrawal, J. and Kamakura, W.A. (1995), â€Å"The economic worth of celebrity endorsers: an event study analysis†, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 59 No. 3, pp. 56-62 Agarwal, J. and Malhotra, N.K. (2005), â€Å"An integrated model of attitude and affect: theoretical foundation and an empirical investigation†, Journal of usiness Research, Vol. 58 No. 4, pp. 483-93. Arnoulds, E., Price, L. and Zinkhan, G. (2004). â€Å"Consumers†. Boston: Mc Graw-Hill. Basil, M.D. (1996), â€Å"Identification as a mediator of celebrity effects†, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Vol. 40, fall, pp. 478-95. Bauer, R. A. and Greyser, S. A. (1968). â€Å"Advertising in America: The Consumer View†. Boston: Harvard University. Belch, G.E., and Belch, M.A. (1993), â€Å"Introduction to Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective†, Irwin, Homewood, IL. Clark, R.C. and Horstman, I.J. (2003), â€Å"Celebrity Endorsents† (www.bu.edu/ e.con/seminar/micro/pdffav) celebendorse.bu.pdf. Clinton, A., Gary, H. and David, S. (2008), â€Å"Exploring the relationship between celebrity endorser effects and advertising effectiveness, a quantitative synthesis of effect size†, International Journal of Advertising, Vol.27 No.2, pp. 209–234. Daneshvary, R. and Schwer R.K. (2000), â€Å"The association endorsement and consumers intention to purchase†, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 17 No. 3 2000, pp. 203-213. Erdogan, B.Z. (1999), â€Å"Celebrity endorsement: a literature review†, Journal of Marketing Management, 15(3), pp. 291–314. Erdogan, B.Z., Baker, M.J. and Tagg, S. (2001), â€Å"Selecting celebrity endorsers: the practitioner’s perspective†, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 41 No. 3, pp. 39-48. Eriksson,K., Kerem,K. and Nilsson,D. (2005), â€Å"Customer acceptance of internet banking in Estonia†, International Journal of Bank Marketing,Vol.2 3 No. 2, pp. 200-216. Freiden, J.B. (1984), â€Å"Advertising spokesperson effects: an examination of endorser type and gender on two audiences†, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 24 No. 5, pp. 33-41. Haghirian, P. and Madlberger, M. (2005), â€Å"Consumer attitude toward advertising via mobile devices – an empirical investigation among Austrian users†, in Proceedings of the European Conference on Information Systems, Regensburg, Germany, May 2005, (accessed on 4/26/2006). Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L. and Black, W.C. (1998), â€Å"Multivariate Data Analysis†, 5th Ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Hu, L.-T. and Bentler, P. (1999), â€Å"Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives†, Structural Equation Modeling, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 1-55. Kaikati.J.G. (1987),â€Å"Celebrity advertising, a review and synthesis†, International Journal of Advertising, 6.93-105. Kamins, M.A. (1990), â€Å"An investigation into the ‘match-up’ hypothesis in celebrity advertising: when beauty may be only skin deep†, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 413. Lear,K.E, Runyan,R.C. and Whitaker,W.H. (2009), â€Å"Sports celebrity endorsements in retail produc ts advertising†, International Journal of Retail &Distribution Management, Vol. 37 No. 4, pp. 308-321. Katyal, S. (2008), â€Å"Impact of Celebrity Endorsement on a Brand†, Chillibreeze writer, available at www.chillibreeze.com/articles/ accessed on 12th, July. Khatri, P. (2006), â€Å"Celebrity Endorsement: A Strategic Promotion Perspective†, Indian Media Studies Journal Vol.1 No.1. July-Dec. 405

What are the most important considerations?

INTRODUCTIONMultimedia, which is in essence a presentation of information that includes multiples media, is becoming a very important medium in learning. Multimedia learning materials have soared since the growth of internet. Yet its effective must rely on the design was tailored to cater specific audiences.PURPOSEThe purpose of this document is to present the most important considerations when designing a multimedia material for adult learners. This document also further explains these considerations.IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONSOverview of ConsiderationsWhen designing multimedia materials for adult learners, the following important considerations should be taken into account (Lieb, 1991):1) Adults are autonomous and self-directed.2) Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge that may include work-related activities, family responsibilities, and previous education. Generally these are established values, beliefs, and opinions.3) Â  Adults are goal oriented4) Â  Adults are relevance oriented and practical5) Â  Adults should be respectedOther minor factors which are not very common to all includes, low level literacy, lacking in confidence and displaying a higher level of anxiety towards academic tasks, limited problem-solving and critical thinking skills, and little or no computer-related skills.Autonomous and Self-directedAdult learners tend to be autonomous and self-directed. Thus a multimedia learning material should have the alternatives that may fit the interest of adult learners. It should not be limiting in options but rather acts as guide or facilitating control. Adults can direct themselves to specific areas of interest at a time to achieve the most efficient learning.Established Values, Beliefs, Knowledge and OpinionsAdult learners experience in life has formed established values, beliefs, and opinions. Thus a multimedia learning material should take into account that new ideas and principles should be explained carefully and explicitly. The explanation should connect these ideas and principles to the established values, beliefs and opinions in order for them to understand. Otherwise they might misunderstood it and think that these are not in accordance with their previous knowledge.Goal OrientedAdults are goal oriented so that they should have a purpose in every module or chapter. The multimedia learning material should clear the objective at the start. Without a goal, adult learners tend to loose their interest because to them life experience has taught them that life is all about goals. The multimedia learning material should provide them an organized layout of the content at the start.Relevance oriented and PracticalAdult learners seek relevance of studies in their daily lives. They need to understand the practical purpose of these lessons. Thus multimedia learning materials should relate the ideas to real world scenarios where they offer a certain level of use.RespectThe most important to all of th is is respect. Multimedia learning materials should not try to break the respect by overdoing with jokes to ignite interest.CONCLUSIONMultimedia products should take into consideration the that adult learners are autonomous, have establish values and opinions, goal oriented, relevance oriented, practical and needs respect in order for these products to be effective.ReferencesLieb, S (1991). Principles of Adult Learning. Retrieved from the BALS website: http://balsontheweb.wikispaces.com/Adult+Learning?responseToken=a02492aded209b11678103756fc3f32b ,January 17, 2007

Mgt 531 Essay Example

Mgt 531 Essay Example Mgt 531 Essay Mgt 531 Essay 1Which of the following is true of The Federal Arbitration Act o [pic]It applies only to breach of contract disputes. o [pic]It governs all types of alternative dispute resolution. o [pic]It permits an appeal for all arbitration awards. o [pic]It provides that arbitration agreements are valid, irrevocable, and enforceable.Correct 2Fred and Ginger are general partners in a business. They decide to purchase a building for the partnership. Ginger will put up the money for the building, and Fred will complete the remodeling. While inspecting the building, Fred is informed that the building is packed full of asbestos. He fails to tell Ginger of the presence of the substance. They buy the building and go into business. During the remodeling of the building, people from the neighborhood begin complaining about the dust from the building. Some of them even threaten to sue. Who is liable o [pic]Both Ginger and Fred are liable, regardless of the circumstances, by virtue of the fact that they are partners. o [pic]Neither Ginger nor Fred are liable personally, nor is the partnership, as they did not put the substance in the building. o [pic]Ginger is liable because she is the one who purchased the building. Fred is not liable, even though he had actual knowledge, because he did not purchase the building. o [pic]Fred is liable because he was put on notice of the presence of the substance. Ginger is not liable because she did not have actual knowledge. 3Which type of business formation is typically reserved for professionals such as accountants, lawyers, and doctors o [pic]Franchise o [pic]Limited Liability Company (LLC) o [pic]Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) o [pic]S-CorporationCorrect 4Which of the following is true of arbitration o [pic]A judicial referee makes

Bamboo in the Wind by Azucena Uranza

Bamboo in the Wind by Azucena Uranza CN: 14 Teng, Marc Gabriel Kiac 16 December 2013H.S. IV-DBamboo in the WindFrom the title itself, 'Bamboo in the Wind' indicates the Filipinos' resilience, just as a bamboo tends to bend with the wind. Although the plot revolves around the Marcos' regime, the cast of characters is able to cope with the changes in the society. In the novel, the character of Larry depicts the idealism turned to realism due to his resilience in the awakening of the Filipinos from their idyllic dream of a better Philippines, especially in the means to do so.Returning from the United States, the land of dreams, Larry begins as an idealist because a man's ideal dream is to live a life that's happily ever after, evident from the text"He had been eager to leave at first. But when the time drew near, he wanted to give up, preferring to stay and work.Bacolod Public Plaza during bicycle races in 1901,...In the U.S., he worked for a while after getting his degree but found no point in prolonging his stay in a for eign land. His place was home. And here he was, he thought happily, home at last, starting a new life, like a rebirth."Furthermore, although he says the line to Connie "I can't be expected to fall in love with a political entity called a nation," his actions do not reflect his words; in fact, it is even Connie who informs Larry of the political situation, which is exemplified in the lines of Connie,"Why should the government be so lavish in its so-called cultural programs, why should we at Holy Trinity pour out a lot of money on so much nonsense, while Jenny languished in Sta. Monica to grow up illiterate because the government and citizens like us can't afford or...

Global Language Technologies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 7500 words

Global Language Technologies - Essay Example This is a method that has been used by Dell Computer Corp. also. The third customer value offering is the product mix. GLT plans to offer all mobile communication devices, from cellular telephones to hand held devices and have accessories available. "Customer's who prefer one-stop shopping or variety would find such product mixes valuable" (Afuah and Tucci p 57 2000). 11 Global Language Technologies (GLT) is a fictitious company dealing with E retailing of multiple product lines emulating the mobile telecommunications industry through direct to consumer sales of mobile communication devices. Since the company deals with many and diverse products the inventory is huge both in terms of quantity as well as in terms of dollar value. The efforts are directed towards improving the supply chain process of the company by undertaking two major activities as follows: GLT needs a system that could integrate all these resources in order to utilise each one of them most optimally. GLT is medium sized organisation. In the telecommunications industry, information systems have a strong impact on management of the organization. The exchange of information through email, telephone, and Internet means that management has a secondary requirement other than people management, it must adapt to new technology as well as create base rules for the transfer of information. Furthermore, management has a responsibility to train employees on technology usage and security as information systems become more complex. Haag et al (p 9 2005) describes information as being: internal to the operation aspects of the facility; external, as the environmental impact of outside forces; objective as being known information; subjective as descriptions of the unknowns. The information systems, being where the telecommunications industry stores customer, business and technological knowledge, needs to be managed to the different types of information available. The influence of the

About Destination Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

About Destination Management - Assignment Example It is the home for most of the national as well as the international based organisations and is also considered to be a significant commercial centre. It has been ascertained that millions of tourist visit London every year. It is worth mentioning that number of famous attractions dwells in the city. Amongst these Big Ben, Tower Bridge, London Eye, Houses of Parliament, Tower of London and Buckingham Palace among others are the few world renowned places that are located in the city. Apart from these, numerous events are also conducted in the city annually. The city has a good transportation system. It is regarded as among the safest destinations for visitors (Visit England, 2013).Correspondingly, this paper primarily intends to describe the emergence of destination development along with relating various theories and concepts to the city of London. 2. The Emergence of Destination Development and Consideration of Sustainable/Responsible Tourism Development A destination is duly regard ed as an area of tourist appeal which comprises attractions and accommodations along with support services. In other words, it can be regarded as a physical boundary embrace with distinctive images as well as qualities that provides a brand identity to a particular location recognisable by potential visitors (Visit England, 2013). The aspect of destination development is often considered to be a central theme especially from tourism perspective. It is worth mentioning that emergence of destinations, government policies, impact of development and marketing issues among others are the vital components that play an imperative role in destination development. It is strongly stated that a destination possesses the capability to motivate visitors to travel by and entail activities of interest to accommodate wherein visitors feel safe and secure. At the same time, shortage of tourism resources, obstructionist role often play by governments, inadequate infrastructure and ineffective promoti on are the primary determinants for destination development (Henderson, 2006). It is firmly stressed that destination development has viable influence on the notion of sustainable development. Broadly speaking, tourism activity considerably contributes towards the development as well as the growth of a particular location. It can be affirmed that sustainable development has greater interrelation with destination development. Correspondingly, destination development is accompanied with various significant factors such as quality environment, social interaction, cultural distinctiveness, security and welfare of visitors and host communes (European Commission, 2007). Thus, destination development is viewed as an important tool driven with economic development along with enhancing the quality life of tourists as well as host communities. 3. Application of Theories to the City Of London a. Stage of Development The mounting demand of national along with international visitors for spending their holidays has resulted in rapid development of tourist destinations. In order to understand the destination development stage, it is crucial to adopt the model propagated by R. W. Butler. According to Butler (1980), the development of a particular destination typically passes through six major sequences or phases. These stages can be identified as exploration, involvement, development, consolidation, stagnation and decline or rejuvenation (Butler, 1980). Diagrammatic representation of the aforementioned stages of destination development has been illustrated below. Source: (Butler, 1980). With this concern, it can be apparently observed that the city of